Molecular beam epitaxial In2Te3 electronic devices

Introduction
Recently, there has been increasing interest in the preparation and characterization of group III-VI chalcogenide semiconductor material-based electronic and optoelectronic device applications1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11. Among these materials, In2Te3 stands out as a narrow-band gap semiconductor with diverse applications in superconductors, optoelectronics, and electronic devices. For these applications, high-quality In2Te3 thin films are necessary. However, achieving high-quality In2Te3 films remains challenging despite the use of methods such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and pulsed laser deposition (PLD)12,13. The variable stoichiometries of indium telluride (e.g., In2Te3, InTe, In4Te3, and In7Te10) complicate composition control11,12,14,15, posing significant obstacles to the preparation of high-quality In2Te3 films.
Here, molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) was employed to achieve precise control over the composition and phase, enabling the production of high-quality In2Te3 thin films. In this study, we report on the fabrication and characterization of MBE-grown In2Te3 field-effect transistors (FETs) and Schottky diodes.
Materials and methods
In2Te3 growth using MBE
In2Te3 thin films were grown on hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) substrates using a custom-built MBE (Fig. S1) system for the growth of (InxGa1-x)2(SeyTe1-y)3 materials. The chamber base pressure of the MBE system was low at 10–9 Torr. The h-BN layers were mechanically exfoliated onto a Si wafer covered with 300 nm-thick SiO2 for substrate preparation. High-purity indium and tellurium fluxes were evaporated by Knudsen cells. The Te/In beam flux ratio was 14–16 for the growth. Before the 1st step of growth, a thermal cleaning process was conducted for 20 min at 500 °C under ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) conditions before the growth of In2Te3. First, the 1st step of growth was performed at 270 °C for 4 min. After this, the indium Knudsen cell shutter was closed, and the substrate temperature gradually increased to 570 °C at a rate of 10 °C per minute with tellurium flux. Further, the second step of growth was conducted at 570 °C for 9 min, after which the indium shutter was closed. The substrate temperature was subsequently decreased to room temperature at a rate of 10 °C per minute with tellurium flux. Finally, the substrate shutter was closed at 500 °C.
Optical characterization
A micro-Raman system was used to measure samples in ambient air at room temperature utilizing an ~150 μW, 532 nm laser. To acquire the Raman spectra, an accumulation time of 20 s was used.
Surface morphological and structural characterization
To study the surface morphology of In2Te3 films on h-BN substrates, field-emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (ZEISS-SUPRA, SIGMA, MERLIN COMPACT) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) (NX-10) were used. A 200 kV CS-corrected monochromatic transmission electron microscope (TEM) (Themis Z) was used for high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (HR-STEM) imaging.
Device fabrication
Initially, h-BN layers were placed on a SiO2/Si wafer, which acted as the back gate dielectric material and electrode, respectively. The MBE method was subsequently used to grow In2Te3 on h-BN substrates. Using an e-beam evaporator, an array of aligner markers (Ti/Au 10/30 nm) were deposited. For the ohmic contacts and Schottky contacts, Pd/Au 10/30 nm and Ti/Au 10/30 nm materials were deposited using an e-beam evaporator. The negative e-beam resist ma-N 2405 (microresist technology) layer was spin-coated (1000/4000 rpm 10/60 s). For patterning the ma-N 2405 layer, e-beam lithography was used. Unwanted In2Te3 films were then etched using reactive ion etching with Cl2 gas. The electrical measurements were carried out in a Keithley 4200 semiconductor analyzer with 2601 A and 2400 source meters.
Results and Discussion
To study growth behavior, the surface morphology of the In2Te3 thin films were investigated at various growth temperatures, which ranged from 420 °C to 570 °C (Fig. 1a). Facets were absent at a lower growth temperature of 420 °C but became discernible as the temperature increased. The domain sizes expand from several tens of nanometers (at 470 °C) to several hundreds of nanometers (at 520 °C), suggesting that higher temperatures lead to larger terraces and smoother surfaces. However, no growth was observed at 570 °C, which can make uniform thin film formation difficult for electrical applications, primarily due to the lack of dangling bonds on h-BN, as previously reported16.

a SEM images of one-step-grown films at different growth temperatures of 420, 470, 520, and 570 °C, respectively. b SEM images of two-step-grown films with initial deposition at 270 °C and second-step growth at 550, 570, and 590 °C, respectively. c AFM image of In2Te3 grown on h-BN. AFM line profile obtained across the red line in the main figure shown in the inset in c. The Scale bar for the inset is 200 nm.
A two-step growth strategy was adopted to address this issue, enhancing the number of nucleation sites at lower temperatures before proceeding to higher temperatures for full-coverage film growth. Initially, at a low temperature, the first growth step aimed to ensure nearly complete surface coverage. Following this, while the substrate temperature was gradually increased, the films were annealed under tellurium flux for several minutes. This approach effectively addresses the challenges posed by the inert nature of h-BN at high temperatures, increasing the number of nucleation sites and preventing film texturing. The effectiveness of this two-step growth approach is depicted in the surface morphologies of the films grown at various second step temperatures, as illustrated in Fig. 1b. Since the films that nucleated below this temperature maintained island structures even after high-temperature annealing, 270 °C was chosen as the growth temperature for the first step. For the second step, higher temperatures of 550 °C and 570 °C led to a flat and uniform surface morphology. However, at temperatures of approximately 590 °C, the surface coverage decreased, likely due to the re-evaporation of the In2Te3 films. Based on these observations, the optimal temperatures for the first and second steps were established at 270 °C and 550–570 °C, respectively.
AFM was employed to obtain atomic-scale surface information on the In2Te3 films. AFM analysis revealed smooth terraces spanning an area of over 200 nm, indicative of desirable growth behavior that produces atomically smooth films (Fig. 1c). Additionally, the AFM image displayed well-defined crystal facets in each domain, with a root mean square (RMS) roughness of 1.4 nm.
The atomic arrangement and interfacial quality of In2Te3/h-BN were analyzed using HR-STEM. Cross-sectional HR-STEM imaging revealed a thickness of In2Te3 ~ 12.2 ± 0.2 nm (the inset of Fig. 2a) and a clean interface between In2Te3 and h-BN, free of any interfacial layers, cracks, or dislocations, with In2Te3 exhibiting well-aligned growth directions parallel to the h-BN substrate (Fig. 2a). The composition at the interface was determined using TEM-energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) mapping, revealing atomic percentages of 40.2% indium and 59.8% tellurium, which is consistent with the stoichiometric composition of In2Te3, as depicted in Fig. 2b. Further stoichiometric characterization was conducted using Raman spectroscopy. As detailed in Fig. S1, three prominent peaks were identified at 104, 125, and 142 cm−1. These peaks are characteristic of In2Te3 crystal symmetry and specifically correspond to the A1g and Eg vibrational modes, respectively. These peaks highly correspond to In2Te3. These results are consistent with those in Fig. 2b. This precise control of composition underscores the benefits of using MBE to maintain a clean interface.

a Cross-sectional HR-STEM image of the In2Te3/h-BN heterointerface. The inset in a shows the low-magnification STEM image in the main figure. b Elemental mapping of In and Te using STEM–EDS. Scale bar for the inset, 1 nm.
As illustrated in Fig. 3, these In2Te3 thin films grown on h-BN were utilized for electronic device fabrication. Initially, Pd/Au bilayer contacts were deposited on In2Te3/h-BN using e-beam evaporation to form ohmic contacts. The channel was subsequently defined through reactive ion etching (RIE) with chlorine gas, employing a negative tone resist.

Schematic representation of the fabrication process and cross-sectional schematic of the back-gated In2Te3 FETs.
The electrical characteristics of the back-gated In2Te3 field-effect transistors (FETs) were evaluated by measuring the gate bias (Vgs)-dependent current (Ids) curve. Typically, the back-gated In2Te3 FETs are on, and as Vgs increases, Ids decreases. The threshold voltage is identified as Vgs = −10 V, at which point the device is turned off (Fig. 4a). The output characteristics demonstrate that the back-gated In2Te3 FETs function as typical p-channel FETs. Unlike conventional FETs, no Ids saturation is observed, suggesting that traditional channel pinch-off and channel length modulation do not occur. The current gradually decreases as the gate voltage increases according to the Vgs–Ids curves for a Vds of 1 V (Fig. 4a). These transfer characteristics indicate typical p-channel FET behavior and operation in depletion mode. As Vgs increases, the current decreases drastically to approximately 10−10 A above −16 V, which is the threshold voltage (Vth) of the back-gated In2Te3 FETs. A high Imax/Imin ratio of 105 was observed.

a Output curve, b transfer curve, and (c) benchmarking p-channel transistors based on group III-VI chalcogenides (field-effect mobility versus on/off ratio).
Another important indicator of transistor performance is transconductance (gm = dIds/dVgs), which peaks at maximum values close to the subthreshold region at 28 nS µm−1 when Vds is set to 1 V. The peak field-effect mobility, determined from the transconductance in the linear regime (Vds = 1 V), was measured to be 6.07 cm2 V−1 s−1, which is higher than that in previous works. The subthreshold swing was 6 V dec−1, and the gate leakage current was 10−10 A (Fig. 4b). Compared with other p-channel transistors fabricated using various methods and materials from the group III-VI chalcogenide family, the MBE-grown In2Te3 from the current study, demonstrates enhanced performance, making it more suitable for switching devices (Fig. 4c).
Furthermore, In2Te3 Schottky diodes were fabricated for potential applications in logic circuits alongside FETs. To evaluate their electrical properties, the I–V characteristics of the Ti/In2Te3 Schottky diodes were measured, which formed a metal/semiconductor Schottky junction with a titanium (Ti) electrode (Fig. 5a). The I–V characteristic curve of the Ti/In2Te3 Schottky diodes shows a turn-on voltage of 1.34 V and a breakdown voltage of −3 V (Fig. 5b). The observed rectifying behavior is attributed to the formation of a Schottky contact between the low work function of titanium (4.33 eV) and the p-type semiconductor behavior of In2Te3. Typical I–V characteristics of Schottky diodes can be described by the following equation:
where, kB is the Boltzmann constant, n is the ideality factor, T is the absolute temperature, and Is is the saturation current of the diodes. From the I–V curves, the rectification ratio, ideality factor, and Schottky barrier height values were measured to be 514, 26.7, and 0.68 eV, respectively. These results demonstrated enhanced performance compared with previously reported group III-VI chalcogenide-based Schottky diodes with lower reverse-bias leakage currents16,17,18,19,20,21, as shown in Table 1. This performance suggests that the diode can reliably function under reverse current flow, making it suitable for applications that demand minimal leakage, such as high-frequency device applications.

a Cross-sectional schematic of Ti/In2Te3 Schottky diodes. b Typical I–V characteristic curve of Ti/In2Te3 Schottky diodes. The inset shows the log I vs. V plot. The I–V characteristic curve shows rectifying behavior.
Conclusions
We have successfully fabricated p-channel FETs and Schottky diode based on MBE-grown In2Te3. The two-step growth strategy employed resulted in full-coverage, atomically smooth In2Te3 films. In2Te3 films grown on h-BN substrates were shown to have atomically clean interfaces by employing MBE for precise control over the composition and phase. The electrical characteristics of the MBE-grown In2Te3 FETs, including enhanced mobility, reduced subthreshold swing, and a highly improved on/off ratio, were significantly improved. Additionally, the I–V characteristics of the Ti/In2Te3 Schottky diodes showed a low saturation current and higher barrier height than those of previous In2Te3-based diodes. The high on-off ratio of the p-channel FETs and the low saturation current of the Schottky diodes increase the versatility and potential for group III-VI chalcogenide-based integrated circuits. These characteristics make MBE-grown In2Te3 FETs and Schottky materials useful in logic devices. We believe that this approach for preparing high-quality group III-VI chalcogenide thin films is promising for next-generation electronics.
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