The dual role of motivation on goals and well-being in higher vocational education students: a self-determination theory perspective

Higher vocational education (HVE) is globally recognised as crucial for economic and social development (Koo, 2016; Sugiyono, Nursyam (2023)), as it trains highly skilled individuals essential for modern economies (Priadi & Mutia, 2023). Yet, HVE students often face unique challenges compared to their academic university counterparts, including negative public perceptions, employment difficulties after graduation, and a potential misalignment between their training and labour market needs (Amedorme & Fiagbe, 2013; Pambudi & Harjanto, 2020; Ugwoke et al., 2021). These challenges can negatively impact student well-being, leading to heightened stress and decreased motivation (Ang & Huan, 2006). This is particularly true in China (Hansen & Woronov, 2013; Minglun, 2017), where HVE students face additional pressures stemming from cultural emphasis on academic achievement (Woronov, 2011) and the competition in the Gaokao^{Footnote 1} examination (Jiang & Zhang, 2012). The Chinese government has implemented various policies and reforms to address these issues and improve the quality and effectiveness of vocational education (Ling et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022), such as Opinions on Promoting the High-quality Development of Modern Vocational Education (2021). However, despite these government efforts, these challenges persist (Wang et al., 2023), impacting student well-being.

Understanding the factors contributing to HVE student well-being is crucial for maximising their potential and, by extension, the success of vocational education programmes. Previous research has highlighted the importance of motivation and goal orientations in shaping student outcomes, including well-being. Self-determination theory (SDT) provides a comprehensive theoretical framework for understanding the complex relationships between these constructs, positing that during the process of goal pursuit, an individual’s basic psychological needs are either facilitated or thwarted, which, to a certain extent, could impact their motivations and, by extension, their well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Utvær et al., 2014). Furthermore, SDT suggests that both the content of a goal (i.e., ‘what’) and the motivation behind pursuing it (i.e., ‘why’) contribute to an individual’s well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon et al., 2004). This study examines the dual role of motivation in the relationship between goals and well-being among HVE students in China.

While the relationship between goals, motivation, and well-being has been explored in academic settings (Behzadnia et al., 2022; Kotera et al., 2022), there is limited research examining these dynamics within the specific context of HVE. Given that a significant portion of existing well-being research has primarily focused on what Henrich et al. (2010) describe as ‘WEIRD’ samples—Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich, and Democratic populations—which are not fully representative of global diversity (Kotera et al., 2024), the applicability of these findings to ‘non-WEIRD’ cultures like China remains unclear.

This study addresses this gap by investigating the relationship between goals, motivation, and well-being among HVE students in China. Specifically, it examines how different goal orientations (intrinsic and extrinsic) relate to various types of motivation (autonomous, controlled, and amotivation) and, ultimately, to overall well-being. By exploring these relationships within the unique cultural context of China, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between HVE student goals, motivation, and well-being, which can inform strategies for enhancing student well-being in vocational education programmes.

Well-being in HVE

Well-being is a multidimensional concept (Junça Silva & Dias, 2023) that encompasses broad-ranging meaning and covers areas such as subjective, psychological, financial, mental, and spiritual well-being (Diener, 1984; Junça Silva & Dias, 2023; Ryff & Singer, 1996). Huppert and So (2013) proposed that well-being is feeling good and functioning well, encompassing both hedonic and eudaimonic aspects. Hedonic well-being emphasises enjoyment and feelings of positive emotion along with life satisfaction (Hervas & Vazquez, 2013; Lambert et al., 2020; Waterman, 1993), while eudaimonic well-being focuses on positive psychological functioning, self-fulfilment, and living a meaningful life (Keyes et al., 2002). For HVE students, well-being is particularly critical, as it influences not only their personal development but also the quality of the workforce they contribute to national development. However, the HVE context presents unique challenges worldwide that can significantly impact student well-being.

One prominent challenge is the pervasive stigma associated with vocational education. Students in vocational programmes often face negative stereotypes and lower social status compared to their peers in academic universities (Chankseliani et al., 2016; Pambudi & Harjanto, 2020; Yeap et al., 2021). For example, in Indonesia, vocational education is often perceived as a second-class option, with a stigma of unemployment and incompetent graduates. This perception stems from issues such as unplanned development, mismatched learning, and the limited involvement of industry (Pambudi & Harjanto, 2020). Similarly, in Ghana and South-East Nigeria, people have been found to hold negative perceptions towards vocational education (Amedorme & Fiagbe, 2013; Ugwoke et al., 2021). Even in the Nordic countries, the students receiving vocational education have been found to hold a low level of recognition for their chosen path (Jørgensen, 2015). This stigma towards vocational education has also been confirmed in Malaysia, as evidenced by the review paper of Yeap et al. (2021). The stigma is particularly pronounced in China, where Woronov (2020)’s research revealed a consistent portrayal of vocational education as inferior and suitable only for those deemed academically inadequate. Terms like ‘failures’ and ‘lazy’ were frequently used to describe Chinese HVE students (Woronov, 2020; Woronov, 2011, 2015), perpetuating the perception of vocational pathways as a last resort (Guo & Wang, 2020; Wang, 2020). This cultural emphasis on academic achievement (Woronov, 2011) and the intense pressure of the Gaokao examination exacerbate negative perceptions of vocational pathways (Durden & Yang, 2006; Wang et al., 2023; Xiong, 2011). This societal stigma has been shown to negatively impact students’ emotions, leading to mental health challenges and reduced overall well-being (Ang & Huan, 2006).

Furthermore, the stigma and perceived lower status of HVE can contribute to a lack of motivation among students in these programmes. Compared to their counterparts in the academic path, many HVE students exhibit lower levels of motivation. Zhang et al. (2016) found that vocational path students tend to be less intrinsically motivated, more extrinsically motivated, and more amotivated than academic path students. The stigma associated with HVE can lead to amotivation, a state characterised by a lack of intention and engagement (Deci & Ryan, 2000). This lack of motivation can create a vicious cycle, leading to poorer academic performance and increased behavioural issues (Ilter, 2021; Legault et al., 2006; Ryan & Deci, 2017a). This pattern aligns with Ang and Huan (2006)’s findings that lower academic achievement is often associated with diminished well-being among students. Moreover, Kotera et al. (2022) demonstrated a strong correlation between amotivation and an increased risk of mental health concerns, such as anxiety and depression, further highlighting the detrimental impact of amotivation on the overall well-being of HVE students.

Consequently, the combined effects of societal stigma, lower perceived status, and decreased motivation often result in lower overall well-being for HVE students compared to their academically successful peers (Wang & Guo, 2019). While educators recognise the importance of holistic student development, including well-being, for a high-quality, skilled workforce (Luo & Chan, 2023; Xue & Li, 2022), research in this area, particularly concerning HVE students, remains limited. This research aims to address this gap by examining the factors that contribute to well-being among HVE students in China.

SDT

SDT serves as the theoretical foundation for this study, providing a framework for understanding the complex interplay between HVE students’ goals, motivation, and well-being. SDT, a widely applied theory in diverse fields such as education, work, and healthcare (Ryan, 2023), posits a dynamic spectrum of motivation ranging from amotivation to intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). This spectrum encompasses six regulatory styles: amotivation, four forms of extrinsic motivation (external, introjected, identified, and integrated regulation), and intrinsic motivation. These styles are arranged along a continuum of autonomy, with amotivation representing the lowest level and intrinsic motivation the highest (see Fig. 1).

The self-determination continuum adapted from Ryan and Deci (2000b).

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While the traditional dichotomy of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation provides a basic understanding, it fails to capture the nuanced reality of human behaviour. Individuals can derive a sense of value and meaning from activities that are not inherently enjoyable (Ryan & Deci, 2000b, 2017a; Vansteenkiste, Niemiec, et al., 2010); therefore, researchers recently have grouped intrinsic and extrinsic motivation into the dimensions of autonomous and controlled motivation, where autonomous motivation includes intrinsic motivation, integrated and identified regulations, whilst controlled motivation includes introjected and external regulation (Guertin & Pelletier, 2022, 2023; Ryan & Deci, 2017a). Given its comprehensive and nuanced approach to motivation, SDT has become a leading theoretical framework in motivation research (for more details on SDT, see Ryan & Deci, 2000a; Ryan & Deci, 2000b, 2017b). By applying SDT, this study aims to investigate the specific motivation of HVE students and examine how different types of motivation relate to their overall well-being.

Goal content theory (GCT)

GCT, the fifth mini-theory of SDT, focuses on distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and their impact on motivation and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic goals are those individuals pursue with a sense of volition and innate nature, while extrinsic goals involve striving for external rewards (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Kasser & Ryan, 1996; Rijavec et al., 2011; Ryan, 1996). When individuals focus on goals that are inherently fulfilling and enjoyable (intrinsic goals), they tend to experience greater well-being, characterised by positive emotions, increased life satisfaction, and overall happiness. Conversely, pursuing goals primarily for external rewards or validation (extrinsic goals) has been linked to negative emotional outcomes, suggesting that such pursuits may not contribute to genuine well-being (Gaudreau & Braaten, 2016; Sheldon, 2014). Sheldon’s extensive research consistently showed individuals motivated by intrinsic aspirations, like personal growth, close relationships, or community contribution, reported higher well-being.

In contrast, those driven by extrinsic goals, such as wealth, fame, or image, often experienced lower well-being, including increased anxiety and depression (Sheldon, 2014; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998; Sheldon & Kasser, 2008; Sheldon et al., 2004). Additionally, Ryan et al. (1996, p. 7) claimed that ‘all goals are not created equal,’ emphasising the importance of considering not only the motivation underlying goals, but also the goal content itself. According to Ryan and Deci (2017a), goal pursuit is driven by motivation resulting from the support or frustration of basic psychological needs. Hence, this study uses SDT to provide a basis for understanding connections between goals, motivation, and well-being in HVE students. The predominantly ‘WEIRD’ focus of existing research creates a critical gap in understanding these constructs within ‘non-WEIRD’ contexts. While studies like Sabzehara et al. (2014) offer insights from the Middle East, the limited research in Eastern contexts necessitates further investigation. This study addresses this gap by examining the relationship between goals, motivation, and well-being, specifically among HVE students in a ‘non-WEIRD,’ particularly Chinese, cultural context, building upon the theoretical frameworks of SDT and GCT. The following sections will present the specific hypotheses, setting the stage for a comprehensive examination of these relationships.

Goals and well-being

Well-being has attracted significant attention from researchers in the education domain, with a growing body of research examining the factors that impact students’ well-being (Upadyaya & Salmela-Aro, 2013). Goals, as a key predictor of well-being, provide one explanation for differences in student well-being (Ariani, 2022; King, 2017), with evidence showing that the content of these goals is essential to boost well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Kasser & Ryan, 2001; Ryan et al., 1996). For example, intrinsic goals are positively associated with well-being (Ryan et al., 1996), while extrinsic goals have been negatively related to well-being (Kasser & Ryan, 1993; Kasser & Ryan, 2001). However, there is an inconsistency in the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being across different cultural groups. Extrinsic goals may not always be harmful to well-being (Bradshaw, 2019); for example, extrinsic goals have been found to contribute to the well-being of Croatian university students (Rijavec et al., 2011), while having no relationship with the well-being of Chinese middle school students (Li & Feng, 2018). Cultural differences and economic conditions potentially explain these inconsistent relationships between extrinsic goals and well-being (Jiang & Gore, 2016; Rijavec et al., 2011). Brdar et al. (2009) found that the negative effects of extrinsic goals on well-being may only apply to affluent countries or groups, whereas for lower-income countries or groups, extrinsic goals are not necessarily negative and may even be beneficial to well-being. Therefore, within the Chinese HVE context, considering these students are mainly from economically disadvantaged families (Geng, 2020; Guo & Wang, 2020; Woronov, 2020), they may strive for extrinsic goals out of more autonomous motivation. For example, HVE students may want to find a desirable job to ease the financial burden and/or improve the living conditions of their families. Hence, intrinsic and extrinsic goals may benefit students’ well-being, although intrinsic goals are still likely to be more strongly associated. On this basis, it was hypothesised that (see Fig. 2):

Mediated model for H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, H7, H8, H9, H10, H11, H12, and H13, H= Hypothesis.

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H1. Intrinsic goals are positively correlated with well-being for Chinese HVE students.

H2. Extrinsic goals are positively correlated with well-being for Chinese HVE students.

The role of motivation

Previous research shows that motivation has independent mediating and moderating effects on goals and well-being. This is not surprising since a variable like motivation could be a mediator and moderator simultaneously (Hayes, 2013; James & Brett, 1984). Various studies have indicated that it is reasonable and acceptable for a variable to function as both a mediator and a moderator (i.e., D’Lima et al., 2012; Kapikiran, 2012; Murshed et al., 2023; Nir & Druckman, 2008; Padmanabhanunni et al., 2022; Peltonen et al., 2010; Zhu et al., 2011). For example, Gaudreau (2012) found that goals were positively associated with academic performance and satisfaction when pursued because of the high level of autonomous motivation and were negatively associated with academic anxiety when the goals were pursued due to the low level of autonomous motivation. However, Gunnell et al. (2014) found that motivation indirectly mediates the relationship between goals and well-being. In addition, motivation was found to be correlated with different goals. For example, the pursuit of intrinsic goals has been found to be positively related to autonomous motivation and negatively to amotivation, whereas the pursuit of extrinsic goals has been positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation (Behzadnia et al., 2022). Therefore, the current study explores motivation as both a mediator and a moderator simultaneously in the relationship between goals and well-being.

Motivation as a mediator

Previous studies have provided evidence that different types of goals have unique implications for motivation (Elliot & McGregor, 2001), particularly when goals are specific, challenging, and achievable, which influences intrinsic motivation (Haradkiewicz & Elliot, 1998; Locke & Latham, 2002). Haradkiewicz and Elliot (1998) found that when task-specific target goals are congruent with higher-order purpose goals, they can enhance intrinsic motivation. In addition, Behzadnia et al. (2022) found that intrinsic goals are positively related to autonomous motivation and negatively related to amotivation, whereas extrinsic goals are positively related to controlled motivation and amotivation. Therefore, it was hypothesised that (see Fig. 2):

H3. Intrinsic goals are positively correlated with autonomous motivation for Chinese HVE students.

H4. Intrinsic goals are positively correlated with controlled motivation for Chinese HVE students.

H5. Intrinsic goals are negatively correlated with amotivation for Chinese HVE students.

H6. Extrinsic goals are positively correlated with autonomous motivation for Chinese HVE students.

H7. Extrinsic goals are positively correlated with controlled motivation for Chinese HVE students.

H8. Extrinsic goals are positively correlated with amotivation for Chinese HVE students.

Ryan and Deci (2000a) found that autonomous and controlled motivation are positively related to well-being, and autonomous motivation is associated with a higher level of well-being than controlled motivation. However, HVE students are often amotivated too (Woronov, 2020), and amotivation is negatively associated with well-being (Kotera et al., 2022). Hence, for Chinese HVE students, autonomous motivation and controlled motivation may both be positively related to well-being, and amotivation may be negatively related to well-being. Therefore, it was hypothesised that (see Fig. 2):

H9. Autonomous motivation is positively correlated with well-being for Chinese HVE students.

H10. Controlled motivation is positively correlated with well-being for Chinese HVE students.

H11. Amotivation is negatively correlated with well-being for Chinese HVE students.

Gunnell et al. (2014) found that motivation mediates the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being through the fulfilment of basic psychological needs; namely, the more autonomous motivation an individual has when pursuing goals, the more they can satisfy their psychological needs, and greater well-being can be attained. Hence, for HVE students, the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being may be mediated by motivation. However, despite most HVE students, who are often from low socioeconomic status backgrounds, tending to set materialistic goals (extrinsic goals) such as alleviating the financial burden on their family (Geng, 2020; Woronov, 2011), this means they are exhibiting greater autonomy. Therefore, this is potentially more beneficial for their well-being. Hence, for HVE students, motivation may mediate the relationships between extrinsic goals and well-being. On this basis, it was hypothesised that (see Fig. 2):

H12. The relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being for Chinese HVE students will be significantly mediated by the three types of motivation (autonomous motivation, controlled motivation and amotivation).

H13. The relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being for Chinese HVE students will be significantly mediated by the three types of motivation.

Motivation as a moderator

Based on the relationships between goals and well-being, different motivations underlying the same goals have varying impacts on these relationships (Srivastava et al., 2001). Sheldon and Elliot (1999) found that greater autonomous motivation behind the goals results in a higher level of well-being. A growing body of research has shown that the combination of goals with high levels of autonomous motivation can lead to sustained effort, satisfaction, optimal functioning, and well-being, whereas the combination of goals with low levels of autonomous motivation can result in negative outcomes such as anxiety and pressure (Gaudreau, 2012; Gaudreau & Braaten, 2016; Henry et al., 2023; Vansteenkiste et al., 2014; Vansteenkiste, Smeets, et al., 2010). For example, Gaudreau and Braaten (2016) found that the positive relationship between goals and both sports satisfaction and positive affect is more pronounced when individuals have high levels of both autonomous and controlled motivation. Although previous research has suggested that motivation has a moderating effect on these relationships, these studies have primarily focused on the achievement of goals rather than intrinsic and extrinsic life goals. HVE students have been found to have low or no academic goals and expectations due to frequent failures in their learning experiences (Jiang & Zhang, 2012). Hence, this study focuses on HVE students’ life goals from intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives. It was expected that the three types of motivation would moderate relationships between different goals and well-being. Therefore, it was hypothesised that (see Fig. 3):

Moderated model for H14 and H15, H= Hypothesis.

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H14. The relationships between intrinsic goals and well-being will be significantly moderated by the three types of motivation.

H15. The relationships between extrinsic goals and well-being will be significantly moderated by the three types of motivation.

To test these hypotheses, the current study first explored any significant associations between two types of goals (intrinsic and extrinsic) and well-being. Next, motivation was conceptualised as both a mediator and a moderator to explore how motivation helps to shape each goal type’s relationship with well-being.

Participants and procedure

A convenience sampling approach was adopted for participant recruitment due to its practicality and cost-effectiveness in reaching vocational college students. This study focused on a state-funded vocational college in China, which specialises in railway industry education and serves approximately 17,000 students. A total of 1106 survey responses were collected, comprising 804 males and 302 females. In the sample, 523 respondents were in their first year, 555 were in their second year, and 28 were in their third and final year. The low response rate from third-year students was attributed to their off-campus internships during the survey period. Institutional ethical approval was obtained (ref: CENT 21-22 005 EGA), and all methods were performed following relevant guidelines and regulations.

Measures

Chinese versions of the AIS, GMS and PERMA were developed following the translation and adaptation principles of cross-cultural studies (Geisinger, 1994; Wild et al., 2005) to ensure the validity of the scales in the Chinese context. Firstly, a translation team was formed with three professionals proficient in Chinese, English, and SDT to ensure the fidelity of the translation. The three scales were then translated into Chinese by the lead author. Next, the team of translators carefully reviewed the quality of the translation. The lead author then adapted some Chinese descriptions of items within the draft instrument based on the comments from the team. Another professional translator, blind to the original items, made a back-translation. The team of translators compared the translated English version and the original English version to make sure each item measured the same characteristics. Finally, the lead author and the team of translators discussed and made slight modifications until they agreed upon the final Chinese versions of the AIS, GMS, and PERMA. Three scales were used to measure variables in the study relating to different types of goals, motivation and well-being.

Aspiration Index Scale (AIS)

Intrinsic and extrinsic goals were assessed by the AIS, which was originally developed by Kasser and Ryan (1996) and was adapted into the Aspiration Index-German language 21-item Version (Hollmann et al., 2018). The English language translation of the German language 21-item version was used in the current study. It contains seven subscales in two dimensions: one is the intrinsic goals dimension with four subscales (Personal Growth, Meaningful Relationship, Community Contribution, and Health), and the second is the extrinsic goals dimension with three subscales (Wealth, Fame, and Image). As is standard for this measure, composite variables were created for each subscale to represent intrinsic and extrinsic goals in the model. It uses a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = ‘not agree at all’ to 7 = ‘completely agree’ to assess the relative importance respondents place on each subscale. The AIS has been validated in multiple studies and yields good internal consistency and validity among students (Núñez-Rodriguez et al., 2016; Utvær et al., 2014).

General Motivation Scale (GMS)

Six types of regulation (intrinsic motivation, integrated regulation, identified regulation, introjected regulation, external regulation, and amotivation) were assessed by the GMS. Composite variables were created for each subscale to represent autonomous motivation (intrinsic motivation, integrated, and identified regulation) and controlled motivation (introjected and external regulation). The 18-item version of the scale used in this study was obtained directly from the author via email (LG Pelletier 2022, personal communication, 20 January). Participants rate how those statements apply to them on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = ‘not agree at all’ to 7 = ‘completely agree’. Scores from the GMS have demonstrated good reliability and validity in previous research (Amiot & Sansfaçon, 2011; Schattke et al., 2018).

PERMA-Profiler (Butler & Kern, 2016)

Well-being was assessed by the 23-item version of the PERMA-Profiler, of which 15 items represent five aspects of well-being (positive emotion, engagement, positive relationships, meaning, and accomplishment) and 8 additional filler items assess general happiness, negative emotion, loneliness, and physical health. Participants rate how those statements apply to them on a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = ‘never’ to 7 = ‘always’. The PERMA-Profiler has previously demonstrated acceptable model fit, internal and cross-time consistency, and evidence for content, convergent, and divergent validity (Pezirkianidis et al., 2021; Umucu et al., 2020; Watanabe et al., 2018). The current study focused on the relationships between goals, motivation, and well-being rather than separate aspects of well-being. Scores for well-being use the average score of the five subscales and one single general happiness item (for more information, see Butler & Kern, 2016).

Our sample may be subjected to common method bias (CMB) as we have used a cross-sectional survey to measure all constructs simultaneously. This is a limitation of this study, as the study could only be done anonymously and hence could not follow the participants longitudinally. To minimise CMB, we designed the survey to have both psychological and proximal separation by ensuring there were separate instructions for each inventory and that each inventory started on a new page (see Jordan & Troth, 2020; Podsakoff et al., 2003; Podsakoff et al., 2012 for detailed information). Further, to test for CMB, we did Harman’s one factor test by conducting an EFA in SPSS for all inventory items. As all items did not load on a single factor, it suggests that they do not share a large amount of shared variance; when all items were forced into one single factor, the factor could only explain 27% of the variance. These three approaches suggest that CMB may face minimal challenges in this study.

Data analysis

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS (version 27.0) and AMOS (version 29.0). Data normality was confirmed, and the internal consistency of each scale was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha analyses (Hancock & Mueller, 2001). Additionally, confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) were conducted to evaluate the model fits of the measurements used in this study before testing the hypothesised structured model (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). The Chi-Square test, Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Standardised Root Mean Squared Residual (SRMR), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Normed Fit Index (NFI), and goodness of fit index (GFI) were adopted to assess the model fit. Hu and Bentler (1999) suggest the cut-off values of RMSEA below 0.06, SRMR below 0.08, and CFI, NFI, and GFI above 0.95 indicate a good model fit. In addition, Kline (2023) proposes that the values of CFI, NFI, and GFI > 0.90, RMSEA < 0.08 or at 0.10, and SRMR < 0.10 indicate acceptable to mediocre model fit. Data quality inspections confirmed that the means, standard deviations, data normality (skewness and kurtosis), and internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of each scale and subscale were within acceptable ranges. Furthermore, measures were taken to control for CMB, ensuring the reliability of the analysis. Finally, the moderation and mediation effects of motivation on relationships between goals and well-being were tested using structural equation modelling (SEM) in AMOS.

Descriptive Statistics

Means, standard deviations, data normality (skewness and kurtosis), and internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) of the scales and sub-scales are presented in Table 1, providing essential insight into the reliability and distribution of the measured variables. The normality statistics were within acceptable ranges (e.g., skewness < |2|, kurtosis < |7|), and the reliability coefficient values were 0.70 or higher for all scales and subscales, demonstrating acceptable levels of reliability. The results of the CFA demonstrated that the three measures used in this study indicated acceptable model fit, as defined in the previous section, such as CFI > 0.90 (see Table 2). The AIS and PERMA did have RMSEA values above the acceptable cut-off; however, Kenny et al. (2015) cautioned that RMSEA could be sensitive to small degrees of freedom (df), potentially leading to inflated values. When df is small, the RMSEA may be artificially inflated, suggesting a poorer model fit than what truly exists. Therefore, since all other fit indices, such as CFI and SRMR, are within acceptable ranges, the AIS and PERMA can be considered to have an acceptable overall fit despite the elevated RMSEA.

Hypothesis testing

Correlations between goals, motivation and well-being

Hypotheses 1–11 were tested using AMOS, a structural equation modelling software, to assess the relationships between the variables. Table 3 shows that both intrinsic goals (β = 0.55, p <0.001) and extrinsic goals (β = 0.32, p < 0.001) had significant positive relationships with well-being, which supports Hypotheses 1 and 2. Significant positive relationships were found between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and autonomous and controlled motivation, supporting Hypotheses 3, 4, 6, and 7. Although significant positive relationships were found between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and amotivation, Hypothesis 5 was not supported. Conversely, Hypothesis 8 was supported. Autonomous (β = 0.65, p <0.001) and controlled motivation (β = 0.50, p < 0.001) were also positively related to well-being, supporting Hypotheses 9 and 10. Contrary to expectations, Hypothesis 11 was not supported, as amotivation was positively related to well-being.

Mediation Effects of Motivation on Goals and Well-being

Six mediation models presented acceptable fit, as defined in the previous section, such as CFI > 0.90 (see Table 2). As can be seen from Table 4 and Fig. 4, all three types of motivation significantly mediated the relationships between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and well-being, with p-values <0.001. Therefore, Hypotheses 12 and 13, which proposed that motivation mediates the relationships between goals and well-being, were supported. Additionally, the mediating effect sizes (i.e., the ratio of indirect effect to total effect; for more information, see Preacher and Kelley (2011)) were calculated and compared to understand the strength of mediation. As can be seen in Table 4, for intrinsic goals and well-being, the mediating effect of motivation increased with autonomy: autonomous motivation was the strongest mediator (effect size of 0.60), while amotivation was the weakest (effect size of 0.15). For extrinsic goals and well-being, the mediating role of motivation also increased with a greater degree of autonomy: autonomous motivation remained the strongest mediator with a substantial effect size of 0.92. At the same time, amotivation was the weakest mediator with a lower effect size of 0.50, highlighting the importance of autonomy in goal achievement.

Path diagram: Mediating effects of motivation (Autonomous, Controlled motivation, and Amotivation) on the relationships between Intrinsic and Extrinsic goals, and Well-being (Note. Standardized regression estimates; *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. Solid lines represent direct effects, and dotted lines represent indirect effects).

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Moderation Effects of Motivation on Goals and Well-being

Moderation was tested using latent structural equation modelling in AMOS, focusing on the interaction effects between different types of motivation and goal orientation on well-being. Following Wu et al. (2013), the matched-pair strategy was employed to reduce the number of interactions, ensuring that indicators were matched according to reliability to improve the precision of the moderation analysis. All six moderation models presented an acceptable fit, as shown in Table 2.

As can be seen in Table 5, Models 1–3 are the moderation effects of the three types of motivation on the relationships between intrinsic goals and well-being. The tests revealed that only autonomous motivation and amotivation had significant moderating effects on this relationship. Significant interactions were found for both autonomous motivation and amotivation, whereas controlled motivation did not demonstrate a moderating effect on this relationship. As shown in Fig. 5, simple slope analysis revealed that participants who reported higher than average levels of autonomous motivation experienced a greater effect of intrinsic goals on well-being (b = 0.35, β = 0.27, CI [0.10, 0.48], p < 0.001) when compared to lower than average levels of autonomous motivation (b = 0.23, β = 0.18, CI [0.06, 0.28], p <0.001). As shown in Fig. 6, simple slope analysis revealed that participants who reported higher than average levels of amotivation experienced a greater effect of intrinsic goals on well-being (b = 0.71, β = 0.54, CI [0.35, 0.78], p = 0.001) when compared to lower than average levels of amotivation (b =0.43, β = 0.38, CI [0.23, 0.49], p = 0.001). From these results, autonomous motivation and amotivation were identified as positive moderators of the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being. Therefore, Hypothesis 14 was partially supported, with two out of the three types of motivation having a moderating effect on the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being.

Moderating effect of Autonomous motivation on the relationship between Intrinsic goals and Well-being.

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Moderating effect of Amotivation on the relationship between Intrinsic goals and Well-being.

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For the relationships between extrinsic goals and well-being (Model 4–6), Table 5 shows that all three types of motivation had moderating effects on this relationship. There were significant interactions found between autonomous and controlled motivation and amotivation on extrinsic goals and well-being. As shown in Fig. 7, simple slope analyses revealed that participants who reported higher than average levels of autonomous motivation experienced a greater effect of extrinsic goals on well-being (b = 0.12, β = 0.11, CI [0.02, 0.20], p = 0.04), when compared to lower than average levels of autonomous motivation (b = −0.23, β = −0.11, CI [−0.27, −0.01], p =0.05). From these results, autonomous motivation was identified as a positive moderator of the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being. Figure 8 shows that controlled motivation moderated the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being. Participants with higher-than-average levels of controlled motivation experienced a stronger effect of extrinsic goals on well-being (b = 0.14, β =0.16, CI [0.02, 0.32], p =0.05) compared to those with lower-than-average levels (b = −0.10, β = −0.11, CI [−0.26, 0.02], p = 0.17). Furthermore, Fig. 9 shows that amotivation moderated the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being as well. Participants with higher-than-average levels of amotivation experienced a stronger effect of extrinsic goals on well-being (b = 0.40, β = 0.41, CI [0.25, 0.58], p < 0.001) compared to those with lower-than-average levels (b = −0.08, β = −0.003, CI [−0.18, 0.15], p = 0.93). From these results, controlled motivation and amotivation were identified as positive moderators of the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being as well. In contrast, for participants with low controlled motivation and low amotivation, there is not much difference between low and high extrinsic goals. Therefore, Hypothesis 15 was supported, with all three types of motivation moderating the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being.

Moderating effect of Autonomous motivation on the relationship between Extrinsic goals and Well-being.

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Moderating effect of Controlled motivation on the relationship between Extrinsic goals and Well-being.

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Moderating effect of Amotivation on the relationship between Extrinsic goals and Well-being.

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This study investigated the relationships between goals, motivation, and well-being, particularly how different types of goals and motivations contribute to the well-being of HVE students. Findings revealed that intrinsic and extrinsic goals were positively correlated with well-being; three types of motivation (autonomous, controlled, and amotivation) were also positively correlated with well-being; and motivation had mediating and moderating effects on relationships between goals and well-being. The study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between HVE student goals, motivation, and well-being, which can inform strategies for enhancing student well-being in vocational education programmes.

This study found significant positive relationships between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and well-being among Chinese HVE students. While the positive association between intrinsic goals and well-being aligns with previous research in various cultural contexts (Guertin & Pelletier, 2023; Jiang & Gore, 2016; Putterman & Linden, 2004), the positive relationship with extrinsic goals warrants further discussion. Existing SDT literature often suggests a negative or neutral association between extrinsic goals and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2008). However, this study’s findings, along with research in other non-WEIRD contexts (Frost & Frost, 2000; Rijavec et al., 2011), suggest a more nuanced relationship. It is important to consider the specific cultural and economic context of Chinese HVE students. Research indicates that many HVE students in China come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Geng, 2020; Guo & Wang, 2020; Wang & Wang, 2022; Woronov, 2020). In such contexts, extrinsic goals, particularly those related to financial stability and supporting family, may be viewed not as detrimental but as essential stepping stones towards achieving broader life goals, including intrinsic ones (Rijavec et al., 2011). Therefore, the pursuit of extrinsic goals, driven by the desire to improve one’s financial situation and alleviate family burdens (Geng, 2020; Woronov, 2011), may contribute positively to the well-being of this specific population. Further research is needed to explore the complex interplay between cultural values, economic circumstances, and the pursuit of extrinsic goals concerning well-being among HVE students.

Furthermore, previous cross-cultural studies underscore the importance of considering the meaning of goals within specific cultural contexts. Frost and Frost (2000), for example, found that Americans tend to view financial success as primarily a means to acquire money, often associated with controlled motivation, while Romanians view it as a symbol of personal achievement and effort, reflecting more autonomous motivation. This difference in perspective helps explain the contrasting relationships between extrinsic goals and well-being observed in their study. Similar to the Romanian sample, Chinese HVE students, many of whom come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds (Geng, 2020; Guo & Wang, 2020; Wang & Wang, 2022; Woronov, 2020), may view financial success as a means of achieving broader life goals, including supporting their families and contributing to their communities. This suggests that extrinsic goals, particularly those related to financial stability, may be pursued with a sense of autonomy and purpose among this population. Therefore, simply categorising goals as intrinsic or extrinsic based on autonomy alone may not fully capture their meaning and impact on well-being in certain cultural and economic contexts. Future research should explore how incorporating social and cultural factors, such as familial obligations and social mobility aspirations, can refine the definitions and measurement of intrinsic and extrinsic goals, particularly among populations facing economic challenges.

The mediating effect of motivation on the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic goals and well-being was also found to increase as the level of autonomy increased. The moderating effects of autonomous motivation were found in the relationships between intrinsic and extrinsic goals, and well-being. However, the moderating effects of controlled motivation were only found in the relationship between extrinsic goals and well-being rather than in the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being. One possible explanation for this could be that, from an SDT perspective, intrinsic goals are most often regulated by autonomous motivation, whereas controlled motivation most often regulate extrinsic goals (Ryan & Deci, 2017a). Additionally, autonomous motivation may have a stronger influence on well-being than controlled motivation (Frielink et al., 2021; Gunnell et al., 2014; Sheldon et al., 2004), as confirmed in this study, where autonomous motivation showed a stronger correlation with well-being than controlled motivation. Therefore, controlled motivation may have less impact on the relationship between intrinsic goals and well-being.

Unexpectedly, this study found that amotivation had a positive relationship with both goals and well-being. Not only was amotivation positively related to goals (intrinsic and extrinsic) and well-being, but it was also found to moderate and mediate the relationships between goals and well-being. These findings contradict previous studies, which found that amotivation was negatively associated with well-being (Kotera et al., 2022; Kouali et al., 2022; Lachance-Grzela et al., 2022). One possible explanation is that Chinese vocational students have already been stereotyped as amotivated students (Guo & Wang, 2020; Woronov, 2020), so students may have internalised these characterisations (Wang, 2021). In this way, amotivation may have become a normal part of vocational students’ being rather than necessarily viewed as a negative characteristic compared to intrinsic motivation. Hence, for Chinese HVE students, amotivation may not harm their well-being. Furthermore, it is important to recognise the specific cultural context of this study. In China, societal expectations and achievement pressures are high (Leung, 1998; Li, 2005). These pressures, often stemming from family and community, can create a strong emphasis on academic achievement and career success (Leung, 1998; Li, 2005; Shek & Chan, 1999). Within this context, having goals, regardless of motivation, may be considered a crucial step towards fulfilling these expectations and maintaining social standing. Even students lacking motivation may still benefit from having goals, whether intrinsic or extrinsic, as these can provide a sense of structure, purpose, and a pathway towards achieving socially valued outcomes. This could help explain the positive relationship between amotivation and well-being in this study. Students may derive a sense of hope or optimism from having goals, as they represent a potential avenue for achieving societal approval and avoiding the stigma associated with failure. This interpretation aligns with research on the importance of ‘face’ in Chinese culture, where maintaining a positive social image is highly valued (Aziz, 2005). Thus, the cultural importance of face reinforces the idea that students may still derive benefits from having goals, despite a lack of motivation, due to the societal emphasis on maintaining social harmony and avoiding failure. Further research could explore the relationship between amotivation, goal-setting, and the concept of ‘face’ among Chinese HVE students. Additionally, comparing these findings with studies conducted in cultures with different achievement orientations, such as the study by Lee and Kawachi (2019) on happiness and values in South Korea, could provide valuable cross-cultural insights.

In summary, this study suggests that while the ideal scenario for HVE student well-being involves pursuing intrinsic goals with autonomous motivation, practical constraints often necessitate the pursuit of extrinsic goals (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). However, rather than promoting extrinsic goals with controlled motivation, future interventions should foster autonomous or self-endorsed extrinsic motivation. This is particularly relevant in the Chinese context, where cultural values and familial obligations often influence students’ goal orientations (Leung, 1998; Li, 2002). For example, the desire to contribute financially to their families or achieve a stable career may be a powerful extrinsic motivator for HVE students, even if the tasks required are not inherently enjoyable. Future research should explore how these cultural values interact with goal pursuit and motivation to influence well-being. Specifically, qualitative studies could investigate HVE students’ lived experiences of amotivation within this cultural context. In contrast, quantitative studies could examine the role of cultural values in the relationship between goals, motivation, and well-being. This nuanced understanding can inform the development of culturally sensitive interventions to enhance HVE student well-being.

This study makes a significant theoretical contribution by demonstrating the dual role of motivation as a moderator and mediator in the relationships between goals and well-being in a non-WEIRD context. The unexpected positive association between amotivation, extrinsic goals, and well-being among Chinese HVE students challenges the traditional, often WEIRD-centric, view of amotivation as inherently detrimental to well-being. This finding suggests that in cultures emphasising achievement and social standing, like China’s, goal-setting itself, even without strong autonomous motivation, can provide a sense of structure and a pathway to fulfilling social expectations, thus contributing to well-being. This highlights the need to consider cultural context when developing theories of motivation and well-being, moving beyond universal models to incorporate culturally specific factors.

Practically, this study underscores the importance of culturally sensitive interventions within vocational education. Recognising that goal-setting, regardless of autonomous motivation, can be beneficial in cultures valuing achievement, educators could focus on promoting goal-setting. For example, implement strategies that encourage and support HVE students in setting and pursuing meaningful goals, regardless of their initial levels of autonomous motivation. This could involve workshops on goal-setting techniques, personalised guidance from mentors, or incorporating goal-setting exercises into the curriculum. Educators can also help HVE students understand how their individual goals align with broader societal values and expectations, particularly within the Chinese context. This could involve discussions on the value of skilled trades in society, highlighting successful alumni who pursued vocational pathways, or inviting guest speakers from various industries to share their experiences. Furthermore, HVE institutes can provide counselling services that are sensitive to the cultural background and values of the student population. This includes recognising the importance of social standing and achievement in Chinese culture and addressing potential anxieties related to familial and societal expectations.

There are several limitations in this study. Firstly, this study was based on a single Chinese vocational college, which may not represent all Chinese higher vocational education institutions. While the findings may have limited generalisability to other vocational colleges, the diverse student population from across the country provides valuable insights into the unique experiences of HVE students within the Chinese educational framework. Future researchers could consider investigating participants from additional Chinese vocational colleges to allow for wider representation and enhance the generalisability of the findings. Additionally, as a cross-sectional design was employed, the results only show the associations between motivation, goals, and well-being at one point in time and do not allow for causal inferences. Although several strategies were utilised to minimise CMB, longitudinal studies are needed to examine the dynamic relationships between these variables over time.