Access to ınformation and social solidarity in the 2023 Turkey earthquake: disaster education as citizenship education

Due to the significant earthquake risk in Turkey, disaster education is vital for all citizens. Preston (2012) defines disaster education as a comprehensive pedagogical framework that prepares the public for disasters, encompassing not only school-based initiatives and public information campaigns but also family, community learning, adult education, and elements of popular culture—what can be considered ‘public pedagogies’ (p. 1). This approach reflects a shift from simple, top-down relationships between the state and citizens to more complex, reflexive interactions in disaster preparedness and response (Preston 2012). In Turkey, disaster education needs to employ multifaceted strategies to raise awareness and equip individuals with knowledge on how to act during and after an earthquake. Community centers and public schools are central to these efforts (Özkorkmaz et al. 2023; Telli and Altun 2023; Torani et al. 2019; Sakurai et al. 2020; Shoji et al. 2020). The 2023 Turkey earthquake underscored the importance of both access to timely information and social solidarity, which were crucial for survivor support and response (Çokluk 2023; Yıldırım 2023). Given these realities, disaster education must be integrated into citizenship education, because as Chistolini (2013) emphasizes: “earthquakes can cause a loss of community identity and simultaneously be a time of active citizenship through educating to the reconstruction of the local historic memory” (p. 385).

Citizenship education is fundamental to societal prosperity and cohesion, as it equips individuals with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to fulfill their social responsibilities and actively engage in democratic processes (Hadjichambis and Paraskeva-Hadjichambi 2020; Tupper 2007; Starkey 2022). Its core aim is to prepare individuals, particularly young people, to participate as informed citizens within their society. In this context, disaster education aligns naturally with citizenship education, fostering civic responsibility, resilience, and community solidarity—qualities that are essential in times of crisis. Given the increasing frequency of natural disasters and other social upheavals, disaster education must be integrated into the broader framework of citizenship education. Thus, we argue that disaster education must become an important aspect of citizenship given the realities of natural disasters and other forms of crisis that individuals and communities experience. For the purposes of this paper, we advance an understanding of citizenship education as more than a means through which knowledge is developed about how government and other institutions work” and the “rights and duties of citizens with respect to the state and society as a whole” (Cogan 2000, p. 1). Rather, the paper recognizes and is attentive to the spatial, temporal and multidimensional nature of citizenship whereby “the thinking and acting of citizens takes into account local, national and global communities”, and their particular circumstances (Cogan 2000, p.2), and is directly connected to the experiences of natural disasters and other forms of social upheaval.

Because of the significant risk of earthquakes in Turkey, disaster education for all citizens is of great importance. Preston (2012) describes disaster education as a pedagogical space that prepares the public for disasters and that requires “not only school based initiatives and public information campaigns but also family and community learning, adult education and popular culture (what we might consider to be ‘public pedagogies’)” (p.1). According to Preseton, “these reflexive and complex pedagogical relationships mean that disaster education has moved far from simple and didactic relationships between the state and the citizen” (p.1). In Turkey, multi-faceted approaches to disaster education aim to enable people to not only be safer during an earthquake by raising public awareness and knowledge of how to act before and during, an earthquake, but also in its aftermath. Community centers and public schools play a critical role in disaster education (Özkorkmaz et al. 2023; Telli and Altun 2023; Torani et al. 2019; Sakurai et al. 2020; Shoji et al. 2020). In the 2023 Turkey earthquake, information access and social solidarity were crucial in helping surviors, and in emphasizing the difficulties they experienced. Thus, information access and disaster education are life-saving for citizens before and after an earthquake, and social solidarity is crucial to help earthquake survivors. In light of this, it is important to frame disaster education as a form of citizenship education, because as Chistolini (2013) notes, “earthquakes can cause a loss of community identity and simultaneously be a time of active citizenship through educating to the reconstruction of the local historic memory” (p. 385).

Disaster education is an important part of the disaster cycle and covers the mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery phases (Federal Emergency Management Agency FEMA (2024); Kendra et al. 2021; Peek et al. 2020). In the mitigation phase, disaster education aims to raise awareness of risk management and sustainable practices to prevent or reduce damage caused by disasters. In the disaster preparedness phase, disaster education provides citizens with the knowledge and skills to minimize risks, while in the response phase, it enables individuals to act consciously to protect themselves and their communities. In the recovery phase, disaster education helps rebuild the resilience of societies by supporting social solidarity and resource sharing practices (Preston 2012; Sakurai et al. 2020). It should be noted that disaster prevention, mitigation and preparedness are more proactive approaches than disaster relief and response (Adedeji et al. 2012). According to CRED’s 2023 Disaster Year Review report, natural disasters, especially earthquakes, are one of the leading causes of human life and economic losses on a global scale. These effects become more pronounced in countries with high seismic risk, such as Turkey. The reports of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) (2023) highlight the critical importance of access to timely information, communication infrastructure and disaster literacy in minimizing losses and accelerating recovery processes. Such information and reports highlight the need for holistic disaster education within K-12 and adult learning contexts. As such, we argue that disaster education must become a core aspect of citizenship education in schools because it fosters a sense of responsibility, resilience, and community engagement. According to Cutter et al. (2008), effective diaster risk reducation involves not only preparedness but also the development of a culture of resilience. Citizenship education, which aims to cultivate informed and active citizens, provides an ideal framework for embedding disaster education as a core component of civic responsibility, especially given the importance of social solidary during and following the experiences of natural disasters in communities across the world.

Given the impact of earthquakes on citizens of a country and our consideration of citizenship education, this study sought to answer the question “how do disater survivors’ access to information and social solidary practices contribute to social recovery after the 2023 Turkey earthquake?” To answer this question, we employ qualitative research methods, conducting in-depth interviews with 16 earthquake survivors in Hatay, Turkey. Focusing on the experiences of these individuals, the study explores how communities cope, how citizenship solidarity networks function, and how survivors address basic needs. Given the profound social, economic, and environmental impacts of earthquakes, the research delves into the crucial role of citizen-survivors in the reconstruction of societies. The overarching objective is to shed light on post-disaster community recovery processes, particularly how communities navigate challenges, utilize solidarity networks, and fulfill essential needs after an earthquake.

The study focuses on the experiences of survivors in the aftermath of the 2023 earthquake and is guided by several key objectives: first, to assess how survivors perceived the accuracy and reliability of the information they received during and after the earthquake, and to what extent they questioned its validity; second, to explore the level of trust survivors placed in the information provided by various actors, including scientists, civil defense, government officials, politicians, and local authorities, as well as the factors influencing this trust; third, to examine how survivors learned about potential aftershocks, floods, fires, or other hazards in the aftermath of the disaster; fourth, to investigate how survivors received information about returning to their homes and ensuring safety post-disaster, and the role this information played in addressing their safety concerns; fifth, to explore how survivors responded to scientists’ recommendations on earthquake preparedness and adaptation processes; and sixth, to identify how survivors met individual and collective safety needs as active citizens. Ultimately, the research aims to better understand the mechanisms of societal recovery after earthquakes and the role disaster education can play in fostering resilience and civic responsibility in the face of crises.

Because the research focused on the experiences of earthquake survivors in Hatay, Turkey post 2023 earthquake, data was collected through qualitative semi-structured interviews and analyzed using a process of inductive thematic analysis in order to identify, anlayze and report patterns or themes within the data. Thematic analysis is iterative and involves several stages, including data familiarization, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing and refining themes, and producing the final analysis. Importantly, the themes that emerge through this process represent patters or significant ideas that capture important aspects of the data and inform a response to the reserach question (Braun and Clark 2006). In this study, emergent themes included access to scientific data, trust in information sources, hazard awareness, return-home decisions, and meeting basic needs. From these themes we drew conclusions about the importance of disaster education as an aspect of citizenship education for improved societal preparedness and recovery.

Participant selection

The study group consisted of 16 citizens who survived the 2023 earthquake in Hatay, Turkey and agreed to share their experiences. Based on qualitative research standards, 16 participants are sufficient to obtain in-depth and meaningful data within the framework of the thematic analysis approach determined by the study. According to Hennink and Kaiser (2022), limiting interviews to between 9–17 participants and focus group discussions to between 4–8 participants enables the realization of a rich data set, especially in relatively homogeneous study populations and narrowly defined objectives such as this study. The participants were selected according to the following inclusion and exclusion criteria:

Inclusion Criteria

• Being affected by the February 6, 2023 Kahramanmaraş-centered earthquake and being in Hatay province during the earthquake.

• Being willing to share experiences in terms of access to information, social solidarity and meeting basic needs after the earthquake.

• Actively participating in semi-structured interviews conducted within the scope of the study.

Exclusion Criteria

• Those who moved to different provinces after the earthquake and could not provide information about their experiences in Hatay province.

• Those who did not want to participate in the study or could not show sufficient cognitive or emotional participation during the interview.

In selecting the participants, we paid attention to representing different demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and socioeconomic status, allowing for an examination of the experiences of different social groups after the earthquake in a more comprehensive manner.

Semi-structured interview process

As a method of data collection, we used semi-structured interviews, designed to understand the processes of earthquake victims’ access to information, social solidarity, and ability to meet basic needs. The interviews were conducted in a flexible format to allow participants to share their experiences freely. Since we have used qualitative research methods previously and are equipped to provide ethical and cultural sensitivity in sensitive situations, we enabled participants to share their experiences in a comfortable and preferred face-to-face environment, while ensuring anonymity and confidentiality. With the permission of the participants, interviews were recorded using a voice recorder and the interviewer took detailed notes. Although the interview duration varied depending on each participant, it was typically between 45 and 60 min.

The interview questions focused on the experiences of earthquake survivors, solidarity and solidarity networks in the post-disaster period, processes of meeting basic needs and the ability to seek external assistance. The following questions were posed to study participants:

1. 1.

   How much access did you have to scientific data and warnings before and after the earthquake? How do you usually access scientific information?

2. 2.

   Did you trust the information provided by people and institutions (scientists, civil defense, government, politicians, local authorities) around you during or after the earthquake? Which information is more reliable for you? Why is that?

3. 3.

   What was your process for learning about possible aftershocks, flooding, fire or other hazards after the earthquake?

4. 4.

   How did you receive information about returning to your homes and ensuring safety after the earthquake? By whom were you informed? How do you address your security concerns about returning to your homes and how did you decide to return to your homes?

5. 5.

   How did you react to scientists’ recommendations on earthquakes and disasters? How far have you complied with these recommendations? Do you trust what scientists say? Why?

6. 6.

   How did you meet your basic needs such as ensuring your own safety, food and water supply after the earthquake?

Data analysis

Drawing on Belotto (2018) and by Nowell et al., (2017), we analyzed the data in accordance with a series of stages. First was data transcription whereby the audio recordings were transcribed in detail into written format. Anonymization was performed during transcription to ensure the confidentiality of participants’ identities. Next, the written data were initially coded using MAXQDA software which enabled a clear, complete and contextual analysis of participants’ views. By examining the relationships between the coded data, common themes and subthemes were identified which were then organized to answer the research questions of the study. From there, and being attentive to reliability and validity, the coding and theme generation process was cross-checked by multiple researchers to increase reliability. Consensus was reached among researchers in case of any disagreement during the coding process. We obtained new information by relating the themes obtained during the analysis process to the existing literature. This method allowed for a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ experiences and the drawing of general inferences from these experiences.

Through the analysis of data emerging from the interviews conducted with the 16 earthquake survivors detailed in Tables 1–6, several key themes emerged which we have named access to information, trust in information sources, social solidarity, and meeting basic needs. Findings illustrate important aspects for disaster education, preparedness, and social support for citizens which we illustrate below. As noted, in response to the key research questions, the data that emerged through the semi-structured inteviews and highlighted in Tables 1–6 led to the articulation of four themes:

Access to information

Following the 2023 earthquake, participants indicated that they faced serious problems in accessing emergency information. Most stated that the information provided by official institutions was insufficient or delayed, causing additional stress and anxiety in the aftermath of the disaster. One participant summarized the situation by saying, “We did not know where to get help right after the earthquake, we were desperate.” A lack of access to necessary information illustrates the importance of strengthening the information infrastructure in a proactive way, and in particular, within an education context intentionally designed to prepare citizens to mitigate the deliterous effects of disaster through social solidarity.

Trust in information sources

The reliability of information was another important issue emphasized by participants. Due to what was perceived to be contradictory information coming from official authorities, individuals were often forced to resort to alternative information sources. On participant shared, “We were stuck with the information circulating on social media, but we did not know how much of it was true,” exemplifying the resultant distrust that emerged because of conflicting information from officials and politicians.

Social solidarity

Participants stated that the solidarity efforts of local communities and neighbors were vital after the earthquake, with one participant commenting “Our neighbors provided us with food and blankets, otherwise it would have been difficult for us to survive.” In light of what participants shared in their interviews, we concluded that the impact of social solidarity and social resilience is very important when official aid mechanisms are inadequate. Thus, we argue it is critical for citizens to be educated and prepared in times of crisis such as natural disasters and emergencies.

Meeting basic needs

The final theme emerging through the research was the need for the basic needs of affected citizens to be met. Participants stated that they faced significant problems in accessing basic needs such as safe water, food, and shelter after the earthquake. The lack of timely government assistance further deepened these problems. One participant shared, “We could not find water for the first three days,” indicating that citizens are actually the first responders and mitigators in disasters which is further rationale for the importance of disaster education as an aspect of citizenship education in schools.

In what follows, we provide additional detail and insight from participants that led to the articulation of the key reserach themes. The themes and the information from this research emphasize the necessity and urgency of disaster education programs as part of broader citizenship education in K-12 and adult learning contexts.

As highlighed in Table 1, with respect to accessing data, recognizing the vital role the internet plays in providing timely and scientific information is critical and aligns with existing literature (Eyüboğlu and Kodak 2023; Huang et al. 2010; Laituri and Kodrich 2008; Özdemir and Şahinöz 2022). Some earthquake survivors struggled to access information for a week or two due to communication and electricity issues. As such, improved planning and emergency communication strategies are essential. Survivors used diverse sources including social media platforms to access necessary scientific information. The data aligns with other studies, highlighting challenges in accessing scientific data and warnings during and after earthquakes, attributed to power outages and network issues (Deepak et al. 2019; Hansson et al. 2020; Mei et al. 2019; Novita et al. 2023; Xu et al. 2020; Yıldırım 2023; Yulianto et al. 2020). It underscores the urgent need to enhance pre-disaster communication infrastructure preparedness. Some participants indicated they neglect scientific data, emphasizing the importance of encouraging public attention to such information through multidimensional approaches to disaster education. Cellular devices like two-way radios and satellite phones are highlighted as reliable tools for emergency response coordination (Yulianto et al. 2020). The internet emerged as a key post-earthquake information source, emphasizing the value of online platforms in communication strategies. Trust in information from knowledgeable individuals and those with university degrees was evident in the data, stressing the significance of accessing information from credible sources within communities. Improvement in post-disaster information access over time emphasizes the rapid re-establishment of communication infrastructure. The speed of community access to urgent information is crucial.

Table 2 highlights earthquake survivors’ trust and mistrust in information from people and institutions during and after the event. Participants expressed mistrust due to insufficient communication and changing information during the earthquake. Lack of access to information makes disaster-exposed individuals vulnerable (Hansson et al. 2020; Eyüboğlu and Kodak 2023), and as such, effective disaster information dissemination is crucial for reducing loss, emphasizing the importance of reliable communication channels. Scientists and scientific data were trusted by the participants, which highlights the importance of enhanced collaboration and communication between citizens and scientific communities (Fallou et al. 2020; Shah et al. 2023). Distrust in politicians and institutions emerged through the data analysis, suggesting a need for these entities to build trust before, during and after disasters. Complaints about information complexity reveal the importance of simple, clear, and consistent crisis communication strategies. Thus, efforts are needed to enhance communication between policymakers and scientists, raise public awareness, and promote trust in scientific data and between governments and citizens during crises.

The findings, summarized in Table 3, provide insight into the information-seeking processes of survivors in the aftermath of the earthquake. Yet, following the earthquake, power outages posed a significant barrier to accessing information, highlighting the critical role of restoring electricity in this context. Alternative power sources and communication infrastructure, such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and Long-Range Wide-Area Network (LoRaWAN), may be essential for disaster management (Xu et al. 2020). Further, concerns about the reliability of information from acquaintances underscore the dangers of misinformation, affirming the previous assertion that citizens must be educated on accessing reliable information so they can respond to the situation accordingly (Fraser et al. 2021; Hansson et al. 2020). Many participants reported never receiving official information about hazards, emphasizing the role of emergency management and local governments in providing effective post-disaster communication (Hansson et al. 2020). Transparency in communication during crises is crucial for building trust in government (Fraser et al. 2021). Importantly, trust is brokered between the government and its citizens through transparent actions that are viewed as supportive and productive. When these are less obvious or in question, trust is eroded and may even translate into social division, precisely the opposite of what is required in a post-disaster society (Panagopoulos et al. 2023). In post-disaster Turkey, the restoration of electricity enabled information-seeking through TV and the internet, but the lack of trust in information sources is troubling, especially as a lack of trust in state institutions leads to generalized community distrust, impacting disaster communication (Chiimba and Verne 2022). Social media and expert opinions were important information sources, aligning with research emphasizing their role in earthquake awareness (Mano et al. 2019). However, ensuring reliability is crucial. Eyüboğlu and Kodak (2023) and Hansson et al. (2020) highlight information distortions and the challenges posed by false or harmful information in modern communication ecosystems.

The results, summarized in Table 4, outline insights from the research interviews about the information processes and their impact on alleviating safety concerns for those returning home. These results ellucidate challenges, such as power outages and a lack of information from official institutions, hindering access to information for earthquake survivors. The findings stress the need to improve post-disaster communication infrastructure and enhance information dissemination by official institutions. Participants often relied on personal experiences and decisions due to insufficient information, emphasizing the necessity for disaster education that encourages individuals and communities to assess their own safety and make informed decisions in a post-disaster context.

Following the 2023 earthquake, and in many contexts where devasting natural disasters have occurred, military personnel and engineers play a crucial role in providing safety assessments and information, and in Turkey, these provided valuable insights for earthquake survivors dealing with safety concerns. Such concerns included home damage and aftershocks, which influenced the decisions made by survivors to return. Boersma et al. (2021) argue that it is important to understand power dynamics in response networks, emphasizing the value of collaboration and coordination in supporting citizens to make good decisions. Of note, Peek et al. (2021) highlight the influence of pre-existing social and economic inequalities on disaster risk. Penta et al. (2021) propose an “All-Hazards Approach” in disaster response, encompassing various variables, while Koç and Yalçın (2023) recommend advanced planning for coordination and establishing distribution centers in widespread disasters. As was apparent in our data, psychosocial support following natural disasters is crucial, aligning with studies emphasizing emotional and post-traumatic recovery after disasters (Drury et al. 2019; Kaniasty 2020) which in turn has impacts for the overall health and well-being of a socity. Supporting earthquake survivors in the post-disaster process, providing alternative housing or security, and fostering community solidarity are essential.

The findings presented in Table 5 reveal a complex range of emotional reactions, including heightened anxiety and fear during scientists’ explanations, highlighting the psychological toll of disasters. Koç and Yalçın (2023) emphasize Turkey’s seismic vulnerability and advocate for coordinated efforts across institutions before, during, and after earthquakes. Central to disaster education is the need to manage fear and equip individuals with coping mechanisms. The varied adaptation levels among participants point to the importance of effective post-disaster information and support systems. Trust in scientists also fluctuated, underscoring the critical role of impartiality in fostering and maintaining public trust in data-driven explanations. Credible scientists are a key part of disaster education, as they not only convey practical information but also help to address the emotional and psychological impacts of disasters (Hansson et al. 2020). This highlights the need for educational programs that enhance emotional resilience and guide individuals in adapting to scientific advice, ensuring that societies respond in a compassionate, knowledgeable, and effective way after a disaster.

The findings underscore several crucial issues related to disaster education and the development of disaster literacy among citizens. Participants’ concerns and fears suggest that post-disaster education should place a stronger focus on emotional preparedness. As Zulch (2019) points out, current disaster preparedness efforts often overlook the psychological aspects of recovery. Policies and training programs frequently neglect emotional readiness, which is essential for helping people cope with the aftermath of disasters. The varying levels of adaptation seen in participants further emphasize the need for disaster education programs that teach individuals how to adapt to scientific guidance, communicate effectively, and evaluate the reliability of information sources. The participants’ trust in certain scientists highlights the influential role of credible experts in shaping societal awareness. For disaster education to be effective, these findings stress the importance of utilizing trustworthy sources and communication strategies that build public access to, and confidence in, scientific advice, ultimately shaping better post-disaster behavior and response.

In consideration of the data contained in Table 6, we draw on Bozkurt (2023) who observed strong social solidarity in the aftermath of the February 6, 2023 earthquake in Turkey, despite some initial antisocial behavior, which was swiftly addressed. Psychological symptoms such as anxiety, insomnia, and irritability were widespread among survivors, with women, children, and the poor being disproportionately affected. The meaning attributed to the earthquake varied across different social groups, with some attributing it to natural causes or poor construction, while others saw it as a punishment from God. Family and community solidarity played a critical role in helping survivors cope, as mutual support and resource-sharing within families and local communities contributed significantly to their security. However, official aid organizations, like AFAD, were often seen as insufficient, and survivors heavily relied on donations and support from neighboring villages. This underscores the importance of social networks and solidarity in meeting basic needs and fostering recovery in the wake of disasters. Similar findings on the importance of social solidarity in disaster contexts have been observed in studies of other disasters, including those in İzmir (Çalışkan and Kaya 2021) and after the Great East Japan Earthquake (Saito, 2020).

Table 6 highlights the critical role of disaster education in preparing citizens to effectively mobilize, cooperate, and use available resources in post-disaster scenarios. Disaster education programs can nurture these skills by emphasizing the importance of family and community solidarity, resourcefulness, and collaboration with local organizations and relief services. As Ertepinar (2023), Mihic (2020), and Fakhriati et al. (2023) suggest, effective communication and cooperation are essential for disaster preparedness and recovery. The ability of survivors to navigate these challenges reflects a degree of disaster literacy, which includes not only survival skills but also knowing how to access and utilize resources from official relief organizations.

The four themes emerging through the data reveal that in the aftermath of natural disasters like the 2023 earthquake in Turkey, the interplay between access to information, trust in information, social solidarity, and meeting basic needs becomes critical in fostering resilient recovery efforts. In such contexts, the ability of citizens to access timely and accurate information directly impacts their safety and survival, whether through evacuation instructions, medical advice, or logistical support for displaced populations. However, this access is often complicated by issues such as misinformation, government transparency, and media reliability, which erode public trust. To build social solidarity, it is essential to ensure that information flows not just from authorities to citizens, but also among communities, allowing local knowledge and mutual aid efforts to complement formal responses. Furthermore, meeting the basic needs of survivors—shelter, food, water, and medical care—requires not only immediate logistical coordination but also long-term trust in the systems put in place to deliver these essentials. In this fragile ecosystem, the success of recovery depends on the ability to integrate clear communication, trust, and collective action to rebuild both physical infrastructure and social cohesion.

Patterson et al. (2010) highlight the critical role that community involvement plays in all stages of disaster management. Community, faith-based, and nonprofit organizations are essential to both short- and long-term recovery efforts, underscoring the importance of local engagement in disaster planning and response. Wachtendorf and Kendra (2016) further emphasize the value of decentralized responses, noting how ordinary citizens and private organizations spontaneously mobilized in crises, such as the evacuation of nearly half a million people from Manhattan by water following the September 11 attacks. This underscores the indirect but vital role of disaster education as an aspect of citizenship education, which prepares individuals to respond effectively in emergencies. The 2023 earthquake in southeastern Turkey serves as a stark example of citizens stepping into first responder roles when official search-and-rescue efforts were overwhelmed. The gap in professional response and the rapid mobilization of citizens to assist in rescue efforts highlighted the pressing need for widespread disaster education (Karacaoğlu et al. 2024). Thus, it is crucial to expand first-response training, particularly in high-risk regions, to ensure that citizens are equipped with the disaster literacy skills necessary to provide immediate aid and support. As Bodas et al. (2019), Karacaoğlu (2024), and Peleg et al. (2018) argue, equipping citizens with the ability to perform search-and-rescue operations can significantly enhance disaster response. Additionally, Gökdaş et al. (2024) note that global crises, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, also serve as lessons, further preparing citizens to respond to a wide range of emergencies. These experiences foster resilience and competence, showing that well-prepared citizens play a vital role in reducing disaster damage and improving survival rates. In this context, disaster education is not just a response strategy, but a fundamental aspect of strengthening societal resilience.

In line with the literature, it has been observed that lack of access to information negatively affects individuals’ preparedness for disasters and increases their stress levels (Sakurai et al. 2020). Likewise, Brooks et al. (2016), who conducted a systematic literature review of 111 articles, found that the psychological impact of disasters on responders is related to pre-disaster factors (occupational factors; specialized training and preparation; life events and health), disaster factors (exposure; duration of stay in the field and time of arrival; emotional involvement; traumatic distress/separation; role-related stress factors; perceptions of safety, threat and risk; harm to self or loved ones; social support; professional support) and post-disaster factors (professional support; impact on life; life events; media; coping strategies). Our research has shown that social solidarity plays an important complementary role, especially in cases where official aid mechanisms are lacking. This situation indicates that social solidarity and disaster literacy should be emphasized within the scope of citizenship education. According to Brooks et al. (2016), in disasters, communities can often emerge in the absence of pre-existing ties among survivors. The emergence of collective behaviors and the mobilization of solidarity and social support in the absence of pre-existing ties can be explained by social identification based on a perceived common fate among survivors, with findings from a number of contexts including earthquakes, bombings, and fires. It has also been emphasized that the need for reliable information sources and the inadequacy of these sources make post-disaster crisis management difficult (Preston 2012). As evidenced by the data in this study, strengthening the infrastructure for access to information and preparing citizens for disasters should be among the priority goals in terms of creating a society resilient to future disasters.

The research also highlights that power outages, network disruptions, and internet restrictions significantly impeded information access post-disaster, emphasizing the urgent need for robust communication infrastructure. Notably, survivors’ indifference toward scientific data underscores the imperative for more impactful disaster education initiatives. The internet emerged as a pivotal information source, stressing the importance of online platforms in communication strategies. Trust in experts and reliance on university graduates signal a necessity for emphasizing credible sources in disaster education, while the swift restoration of communication infrastructure post-disaster remains pivotal for overall information access improvement. As the frequency and intensity of natural disasters have increased globally, there is an urgent need to achieve sustainable cities and human settlements and strengthen country-specific resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters (Khan et al. 2022).

The insights of our research participants indicate that disaster education, as a core component of citizenship education in schools, has the potential to play a vital role in shaping a society’s resilience in the face of natural disasters. By integrating disaster preparedness and response strategies into the curriculum, schools equip students not only with knowledge of what to do in an emergency but also with an understanding of the broader social dynamics at play during and after a disaster. This education fosters an awareness of the importance of access to reliable information and the critical role that trust in public systems and authorities plays in ensuring safety. When students learn about disaster risk reduction, communication strategies, and the need for cooperation, they are better prepared to act in the interests of both their own well-being and that of their communities. In the context of post-disaster scenarios like Turkey’s 2023 earthquake, students who have been educated about these topics can serve as informed, proactive citizens, spreading accurate information and encouraging collective action during emergencies. Moreover, disaster education fosters social solidarity by promoting the values of empathy, mutual support, and community engagement, all of which are crucial for overcoming the isolation and fear that often follow a disaster. In schools, students are taught not just survival skills, but also how to think critically about information, discern sources, and participate in collective efforts to address shared challenges. This kind of education helps break down barriers between individuals and groups, encouraging cooperation across diverse communities when resources are scarce and the pressure to rebuild is high. By embedding disaster education within citizenship frameworks, schools can help nurture generations of citizens who are not only prepared for emergencies but also committed to the well-being of their society as a whole. Through this process, disaster education becomes an essential tool for building a more informed, resilient, and compassionate society, where the bonds of solidarity strengthen in the face of adversity.

The findings underscore the critical role of reliable communication channels in disaster recovery, particularly in the context of the 2023 earthquake. The pervasive mistrust toward changing information, along with skepticism toward political institutions, highlights the necessity for transparent, consistent messaging from trusted sources. Scientists, whose data and expertise were pivotal in guiding public response, must be more integrated into disaster information and education strategies to strengthen public trust. The complexity of information flow, compounded by power outages and limited access to media, underscores the importance of preparing alternative communication infrastructure, such as backup power sources, and training citizens to recognize credible sources. Social media and expert opinions emerged as key information sources, though their reliability must be carefully managed. Personal networks played a crucial role in information sharing, demonstrating the importance of community solidarity in post-disaster recovery. As survivors relied on their own assessments, the role of disaster education in promoting informed decision-making and individual safety became evident. The involvement of military personnel and engineers further emphasized the need for accurate safety assessments and effective communication during recovery.

Moreover, the psychological impact of disasters—heightened anxiety and fear in response to scientific recommendations—calls for a more comprehensive approach to emotional preparedness within disaster education. Varying compliance with safety guidelines highlights the need for improved post-disaster training that includes adaptive strategies for coping with uncertainty and reinforcing trust in scientific advice. Community solidarity also proved essential in meeting basic needs, with survivors relying on local resources, entrepreneurial efforts, and support from neighboring villages. The insufficient aid from official organizations underscored the need for faster, more efficient disaster response systems. In light of these findings, disaster education should prioritize teaching social solidarity, resourcefulness, and the importance of local contributions, helping communities respond more effectively and recover more swiftly in the aftermath of a disaster.

We acknowledge that there are some methodological and contextual limitations to this study. First, although the sample size is sufficient for the type of qualitative research we undertook, it is relatively small when one considers the sample size for a quantitative study. Second, although the study was conducted in the most severely damaged region, it only focused on Hatay province of Turkey. Therefore, the findings cannot be generalized to other regions. Third, the semi-structured interview method used in the data collection process is based on the subjective experiences of the participants and, as in all qualitative research, objectivity may be limited. In addition, the findings on social solidarity and access to information should be supported by quantitative studies with larger samples. Future studies can deepen the findings of this study and focus on different regions and contexts.

This study underscores the critical importance of disaster education in enhancing information access, fostering social solidarity, and meeting basic needs in post-disaster contexts. The findings emphasize the need for increased disaster literacy as part of broader citizenship education, advocating for curricula that focus on disaster preparedness and resilience. Such curricula should prioritize access to information, security, and the development of community resilience, while addressing key challenges such as energy outages, information gaps, emotional reactions, and effective coping strategies. When disaster education is intentionally integrated into citizenship education, individuals can be better equipped with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to navigate both personal and collective disaster challenges. As such, disaster education is a vital component of citizenship education, which traditionally aims to cultivate informed, active, and responsible citizens. As scholars like Quarantelli (2005) note, effective disaster response relies not only on individual preparedness but also on community solidarity and collective action. By learning about disaster risks and response strategies, students gain an understanding of the importance of social cooperation and the roles that both government and civil society play in mitigating disaster impacts. Disaster education also fosters resilience and critical thinking, empowering students to assess risks, evaluate emergency protocols, and engage in problem-solving during crises (Cutter et al. 2008). Furthermore, it promotes social justice by highlighting how different communities—especially vulnerable groups—experience disasters disproportionately. Teaching students about these disparities cultivates empathy, equity, and a commitment to advocating for marginalized communities. Ultimately, disaster education strengthens citizenship by fostering civic responsibility, resilience, critical thinking, and social justice in the face of disasters.

This research illuminates the complexities of the post-disaster period by analyzing the experiences of survivors of the 2023 earthquake in Turkey. The findings highlight significant challenges in safety, information access, solidarity, and meeting basic needs. Power outages, network disruptions, and internet restrictions were identified as key barriers to information flow, emphasizing the urgent need for resilient communication infrastructure. Trust in experts and scientific data emerged as crucial for effective disaster education, with the internet, particularly social media, serving as a pivotal source of information. However, survivors’ skepticism toward scientific data and political institutions underlined the importance of transparent and credible communication channels. In this context, it is recommended to integrate disaster literacy into citizenship education to improve disaster preparedness and enhance public trust in official sources.

The study also revealed the critical role of reliable information in shaping survival strategies, with many individuals relying on personal networks and experiences to make decisions during the crisis. The involvement of military personnel and engineers in providing safety assessments was seen as essential for effective community risk management. Concerns about home damage and aftershocks further highlighted the need for improved community-level risk assessment capabilities. Given the challenges posed by power outages and the volatility of information during disasters, the swift restoration of communication infrastructure is crucial. Streamlined crisis communication strategies, along with disaster literacy education focused on identifying trustworthy sources, are key to fostering more resilient communities in the face of future crises.

Based on these results, the most crucial recommendation for citizenship education curricula is to prioritize the development of disaster literacy skills, which as Kitagawa (2021) argues is increasingly significant “given that risks and threats are growing worldwide” (p.1). This entails focusing on formal, non-formal, and informal modes of learning (Kitagawa 2021) and includes strategies such as enhancing communication infrastructure, fostering trust in scientific data, preparing for alternative energy sources, prioritizing emotional preparedness, and promoting community solidarity. In order to build safer and more resilient societies in the face of disasters, it is necessary to adopt a holistic and community-centered approach in citizenship education. Other major recommendations include strengthening both digital and traditional communication infrastructure to ensure faster and more reliable information flow during disasters. Additionally, expanding disaster literacy through education in schools and community-based public awareness programs is essential for building a more resilient society. Supporting and sustaining local solidarity networks through increased public and civil society involvement will also be crucial in ensuring the continuity of community support during crises. These recommendations provide a strategic framework for improving disaster preparedness and enhancing crisis management in future events.

In light of the findings that emerged through this study, and in consideration of disaster education, which aims to “ensure that citizens become conscious and prepared individuals against disasters, thus minimizing the effects of disasters and increasing the resilience of the society against disasters” (Karacaoğlu 2024.p.250), we argue for a multi-faceted approach to disaster education in formal, non-nonformal, and informal learning contexts that considers the importance of trustworthy information, social networks, and social solidarity, and the agency of individual citizens and communities. While our study focused on the experiences of survivors of the earthquake in Turkey, we see its applicability to many other contexts, especially in light of the rise of global disasters in the 21^st century. Further, diaster resilience and preparedness, as described by Preston (2012) must be understood at the invidiual, community, and state level and as such, approached as interconnected, and thus mutlifaceted. Indeed, this is an important aspect of citizenship education and its complexities especially as means to mitigate division, distrust, and social decline. Indeed, we argue that disaster education as form of citizenship education is essential for the health and well-being of societies and the citizens therein.