Can decent work promote fertility intention? The mediating role of work-family conflict

With economic development and social progress, the fertility rate is declining as women increasingly participate in the labor market and attain higher levels of education (Ben-Kimhy et al. 2020; Preis et al. 2020). Despite the gradual easing of fertility restrictions in China since 2013, the policy has had little impact over the past decade, and people’s desire to have children remains low. Statistics indicate that China’s fertility rate was 8.52%, 7.52%, 6.77% and 6.39% from 2020 to 2023. According to the United Nations’ World Population Prospects 2024, China’s population is projected to drop from 1.4 billion to 630 million by 2054 (United Nations, 2024). In just 30 years, China has transitioned from a population explosion to a collapse, signaling an impending crisis of low fertility. Low fertility rates can have significant long-term effects on both the economy and society. From an economic standpoint, individuals serve as producers and consumers; therefore, a notable decline in population may hinder a country’s economic growth (Maruyama, Yamamoto (2010)). From a social development perspective, decreasing newborns over time could pose challenges to a nation’s innovation and technological advancement. Furthermore, Women’s active participation in the workforce also limits population growth. China will have 740.41 million employed people in 2022, with 470.32 million in urban areas, accounting for 63.5% of the employed population. The rise in job opportunities means more employees must balance work and family roles. Work-family conflict can lead to role stress for individuals, specifically in their family and work roles (Ji & Jung, 2021). When faced with such conflicts, childbearing women often find it helpful to alleviate family role stress by adjusting their fertility desires rather than focusing on reducing work role stress to achieve a better balance between these important aspects of their lives (Li et al., 2024). Decent work (DW), proposed in 1999 at the International Labor Organization (ILO) Conference, is aimed to offer decent, productive, and sustainable work for all genders. DW not only enhances the employability of individuals but also contributes to the innovative performance of organizations (Su & Chan, 2023; Xu et al., 2022). As the overall level of DW in society has increased, how does workers’ decent work affect fertility intentions (FI)? To address these questions, we conducted a comprehensive review of relevant literature and conducted an in-depth study.

Research on the spillover effects of DW on work-family relationships and family decision-making is still insufficient. Scholars have examined DW from both macro and micro perspectives. Macro-level research on DW focused on measurement indicators based on the ILO definition and conducted comparative analyses in different countries and regions from 1999 to 2016. Micro-level studies on DW concentrated on individual perception (Yan et al., 2023a; Yan et al., 2024) and scale development based on grounded theory and the psychology of working theory from 2016 to the present (Duffy et al., 2017; García-Rodríguez et al., 2021). Micro studies on DW found that it had a significant impact on individual work attitudes (Xu et al., 2022; Huang et al., 2020) and behavior in the workplace (Aybas et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2023b). In recent years, scholars have explored the spillover effects of DW on work-family relationships. The research conclusions focus on two aspects: (1) Decent work, as an independent variable in the work-family relationship, significantly affects work-family balance, enrichment, and conflicts. A survey of Nigerian banking employees revealed that an unfavorable decent work environment—characterized by insufficient social dialogue and working rights—negatively impacts work-family balance (Kabir et al., 2023). This finding was also confirmed among Chinese employees (Geng et al., 2024). Research indicates that organizational support fosters work-family enrichment through DW (Xu et al., 2024), while DW predicts conflicts arising from insufficient leisure time, leading to role clashes between work and family (Vignoli et al., 2020). Research on work-family conflicts (WFC) found that increased role conflicts weaken the impact of DW on employee performance and turnover intention (Aybas et al., 2022). (2) As part of work family relationship, work-family balance is a predictor of decent work. Baş et al. (2024) found that balancing work, family, and personal life is one of the most affected criteria for decent work using Fuzzy DEMATEL decision-making methods (Baş et al., 2024). This conclusion innovates the concept of DW at both macro and micro levels but remains unverified in other groups.

In summary, research on the spillover effects of DW on work-family relationships remains inadequate, presenting some findings but also notable shortcomings. The main gaps are as follows: (1) Measuring DW at the micro level using a macro concept raises concerns about the generalizability of conclusions due to inconsistencies in measurement tools. (2) There is ongoing debate regarding whether DW is an independent variable from work-family relationships or if it encompasses aspects of those relationships. (3) Research on how DW influences individual family decision-making is still lacking. Current studies focus more on its spillover effects on work-family relationships rather than individual decision-making processes.

To answer the research questions and fill the gap of the present study, we construct a theoretical framework model of DW, WFC, FI, organizational support (OS), family support (FS), gender and job autonomy (JA) based on the conservation of resource (COR) theory. Data are collected through questionnaires to verify the hypothesis. The theoretical implication of this study lies in filling the current research gap to some extent. We adopt the definition of decent work perception proposed by Yan et al. (2023a) to clarify DW as a micro-level concept, addressing the first gap in current research that uses macro-level definitions to study individual perceptions. We utilize COR theory to differentiate between DW and WFC as distinct resources, tackling the second gap regarding their independence as variables. Additionally, we examine individual fertility intention as a variable in family decision-making to explore how DW and WFC relate to FI, thus addressing the third shortcoming associated with the lack of research on how DW influences family decision-making. The practical implications lie in the fact that the findings of this study can provide a theoretical basis for the government to formulate labor market policies and serve as a reference for enterprises to develop humane management policies.

Therefore, the structure of this paper is organized as follows. Chapter 2 conducts a literature review on DW, WFC, and FI. Chapter 3 proposes a theoretical model based on COR theory for DW, WFC, FI, OS, FS, gender, and job autonomy. Chapter 4 covers the sampling process, measurement tools, sample characteristics, and scale validation using SPSS 27.0 and SMART-PLS. Chapter 5 tests the hypotheses, including the main, mediating, and moderating effects in the theoretical model. Chapter 6 summarizes the findings, discusses theoretical significance and practical implications, and identifies the limitations and future research.

Work-Family Conflict

WFC refers to the conflict between work and family roles resulting from incompatible role pressures in both domains (Duffy et al. (2023)). Balancing work and family demands is challenging due to limited resources and time constraints, resulting in conflict between work and family roles. According to the inter-role conflict perspective, work-family conflict can be categorized as work-to-family conflict (WTFC) and family-to-work conflict (FTWC). WTFC occurs when work-related pressure affects the family setting, while FTWC occurs when family responsibilities involve work roles (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Soomro et al., 2018).

Studies on antecedents of WFC indicate that OS and FS are the primary influential factors. OS can be defined as the valuable contribution an individual makes to the organization and the recognition it gives to its individuals. It can also be seen as a person’s perception of the support they receive from the organization (Hellman et al., 2006). As part of social support, OS can alleviate employees’ financial pressure through compensation and give them spiritual backing through recognition (Dunseath et al., 1995; Thoits, 1986). Research has indicated that OS can reduce WFC by buffering the connection between stress and stressors (Wu et al., 2018; Andrade & Neves,2022). When an organization supports its employees, it reduces their WFC by alleviating stress from both work and family (Eisenberger et al., 2020). Therefore, OS will not only mitigate WTFC but will also be effective in mitigating FTWC. Studies have shown that FS reduces family-related stress and decreases stress from the work domain (Bajaba et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2014), thus directly reducing the WFC. Furthermore, FS, as an individual resource, plays a crucial role in fostering a harmonious balance between work and family by providing emotional and instrumental support. As a result, it indirectly alleviates the negative impact of WFC (Leung et al., 2020). In conclusion, OS and FS can directly or indirectly alleviate WFC. However, the paths of OS and FS need to be clearly defined.

Scholars have extensively studied the link between WFC and FI. Research shows that WFC significantly negatively affects FI (Zeng et al., 2023). According to COR theory, WFC negatively impacts family decision-making because individuals tend to allocate more resources to either work or family when there is a conflict, leading to a lack of resources in the other role (Obrenovic et al., 2020). Studies indicate that WFC is positively linked to negative attitudes toward having children in restrained societies (Jiang et al., 2024), where professional life takes precedence, and individuals show greater persistence and a willingness to invest more time in their work (Fietz et al., 2021). However, some studies indicate that WFC does not impact the FI of professional women in the United States (Liu, Hynes (2012)). This is because American women’s fertility behavior is more stable and less influenced by external factors. When facing WFC, they tend to withdraw from the labor market and have children first to ease role conflicts between work and family.

In summary, research on WFC has progressed in defining and developing measurement tools. However, limitations remain: (1) the influence of organizational and family support on WFC is unclear; (2) the impact of WFC on individual fertility decisions has not been consistently verified.

Fertility Intention (FI)

FI is a crucial indicator of fertility (Toulemon & Testa, 2005). FI is narrowly defined as an individual’s subjective ideas about future reproductive behavior, including the desired number of children, gender preferences, and the age at which they plan to start a family (Ewemooje et al., 2020). Moreover, FI is broadly defined as attitudes towards fertility, encompassing the reproductive decision-making process and the motivation to have children (Bachrach & Morgan, 2013; Miller & Pasta, 1995).

Scholars have conducted in-depth and extensive research on the impact of gender and job autonomy (JA) on FI. On one hand, research shows that the impact of gender on FI is heterogeneous (Neyer et al., 2013). Women often lower their FI, particularly regarding multiple children, due to challenges in balancing work and family resources (Li, et al., 2024). However, some studies indicate no significant difference in FI between men and women. Both full-time working men and women face family conflicts and have lower FI (Latshaw & Yucel, 2022). The impact of gender on FI may be indirect, and it is necessary to examine the factors related to work that may also influence it. Research on the impact of JA on FI reveals that it significantly affects female fertility. Women working part-time have higher FI than those in full-time positions (Yarger & Brauner-Otto, 2024), as part-time work offers greater job control, making them more inclined to have children (Begall & Mills, 2011). However, they are also more likely to postpone their childbearing plans (Shreffler, 2017). Compared to female workers in agriculture, female workers in non-agricultural employment are less likely to have children due to lower JA rather than leisure time (Shen et al., (2023)). These research findings indicate that JA is positively correlated with FI, particularly in full-time and non-agricultural employment groups. Thus, examining the relationship between job-family dynamics, JA, and FI can help clarify the influencing factors and their mediators and moderators.

In summary, current research consistently shows that gender and JA significantly impact FI. However, there are some shortcomings in the existing studies. First, it remains unclear whether the effect of gender on FI is direct or indirect. Second, further exploration is needed to determine how job factors influence this relationship. Third, the impact of job-family relationships on the connection between JA and FI requires testing.

Decent Work (DW)

Scholars have studied the DW at both macro and micro levels since its proposal in 1999. Macro DW emphasizes job security and equality in the workplace. According to the job security perspective, DW is committed to developing policies at national and organizational levels to ensure income security and job stability for workers, allowing them to maintain a steady income and protect their livelihoods (Anker et al., 2003). According to the equity perspective, DW should include fair and equitable opportunities for productive work, fair incomes, workplace safety, social protection for families, personal development, and social inclusion (Guichard, 2016; Hauf, 2015). Micro DW focuses on workers’ pursuit of meaningful work (Rubenstein et al., 2020), emphasizing the attainment of self-worth and dignity through engaging in challenging tasks. Scholars have explored DW dimensions and scales through in-depth interviews and standardized questionnaire development procedures. For example, the DW scale (DWS) developed by Duffy et al. (2017), the DW perception scale (DWPS) developed by Yan et al. (2023a), the instrument of DW developed by García-Rodríguez et al. (2021), and the DW questionnaire (DWQ) developed by Ferraro et al. (2018).

The work-family relationship encompasses three different forms: WFC, work-family enrichment, and work-family balance (Wayne et al., 2022). Research related to DW, and work-family relations is still in the early stages. Scholars have initially explored the impact of DW on WFC and work-family balance. According to the JD-R model, researchers have confirmed that FTWC moderates the relationship between DW and intention to leave regarding job resources and requirements (Aybas et al., 2022). Thus, the indirect effect of WFC on DW was verified. Studies also explore the impact of DW on work-family balance. Research has shown that social dialogue and security significantly impact work-family balance for employees in Bangladesh (Geng et al., 2024), but this was not confirmed for Nigerian employees in the banking sector (Kabir et al., 2023).

In conclusion, scholars have focused on the correlation between work-family relationships and DW. However, there still needs to be sufficient research. The reasons lie in the measurement tools and theoretical foundation. Work-family relations primarily focus on the micro level; therefore, the measurement of work-life balance should also be consistent. However, current research adopts a macro measurement of DW in work-family relations research. The theoretical framework between work-family relations and DW also needs a theoretical basis. Most studies focus on the correlation of data between variables while neglecting the causal relationship between work-family relations variables and DW.

Conservation of Resources Theory (COR)

COR theory, introduced by Hobfoll in 1989, suggests that people need to cope with external pressures by acquiring, investing in, and protecting the resources they value. Resources are broadly defined as any ability, object, personal characteristic, energy, or condition that people value [56]. Since the 1990s, the theory has been widely used in the study of WFC. When conflict arises in the work and family settings, an individual tends to embed personal resources in areas that are important to him to reduce inter-role conflict (Rubenstein et al., 2020). Based on the resource gain perspective, positive attitudes at work and partner support, considered as individual recourse, have a significant effect on reducing WFC (Chen & Huang, 2016; Lauzun et al., 2012; Seiger & Wiese, 2009). Based on the resource loss perspective, excessive work commitment results in an unequal allocation of time resources between family and work, thereby worsening WFC (Yu et al., 2020; Halbesleben et al., 2009). Family incivility, parental demands, and family ostracism can lead to emotional exhaustion (Ye et al., 2021), which in turn depletes resources and may worsen individuals’ WFC (Luk & Shaffer, 2005; Lin & Bai, 2023).

According to COR theory, an individual’s time and energy are valuable and limited resources. Work and family demand often lead to unequal distribution of resources, making it challenging for individuals to balance their roles and resulting in conflict (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). DW is a valuable job resource that helps individuals preserve existing resources by completing tasks on time and acquiring new resources by reducing WFC. When resources are preserved and accumulated, individuals feel more in control of the future, have greater confidence in starting and raising a family, and are more willing to have children. As another form of resources, FS and OS have some moderating effects on individuals’ access to resources. FS can help balance work and family roles, reducing role conflict stress through emotional and instrumental support (Hobfoll et al., 1990). OS has long been recognized as a crucial individual resource in mitigating WFC (Karatepe, 2015; Karatepe & Kilic, 2007). Organizations that offer employees flexible work schedules and cultivate a supportive work environment can enhance individuals’ perceptions of work-life balance, thereby reducing WFC (Huang et al., 2022). Additionally, as primary child bearers, women shoulder more family responsibilities than men. Female employees with JA benefit from flexible hours and remote work, which alleviates WFC and fosters positive interactions between their work and family roles, ultimately increasing their willingness to have children.

Therefore, we propose a theoretical framework of DW, WFC, FI, OS, FS, JA and gender as shown in Fig. 1.

Theoretical research model.

Full size image

Main effect of DW on FI

We broadly define FI as an individual’s attitude towards childbearing and motivation for childbearing. Fertility planning requires individuals to invest more resources, such as time, financial, labor, and material resources. When individuals face fertility decisions, they often consider future economic uncertainty (van Wijk, Billari (2024)), which may lead to a loss of resources. DW can be regarded as an individual’s resource in the workplace. Resources flow from the workplace to the family for those with more recourses (Lin & Bai, 2023). We define DW as individuals’ perception of decency derived from their job security (JS), respect and support (RS), self-value (SV), and professional skills (PS) (Yan et al., 2023a). From an job security perspective, individuals with a low perception of DW find it challenging to secure a stable income. Previous research has demonstrated that individuals decrease their reproductive intention when their income is unstable (Modena et al., 2014), in that raising a child involves a significant financial burden (El-hneiti et al., (2024)). From a respect and support perspective, struggling to gain respect and support within the organization can impact an individual’s emotional well-being at work and lead to psychological stress. People often prioritize protecting their existing resources, such as work-related ones, over- investing in them during stressful situations (Hobfoll, 1989). Consequently, they tend to have fewer children to safeguard against resource depletion. From a self-value perspective, job challenges and promotion opportunities can realize employees’ self-value (Xu et al., 2022). Struggling to recognize one’s self-value at work can lead to emotional exhaustion (Yan et al., 2023b). Emotional exhaustion can create an unfavorable environment for women to consider reproduction, leading them to be reluctant or delay their plans for having children (Jarosz et al., 2023). In terms of professional skills, having solid professional competencies is essential for employees. Those who demonstrate less independence and diversity cannot continuously learn and enhance their job capabilities. This may threaten them to maintain control over their work and decrease their sense of responsibility and meaningfulness (Karasek, 1979; Grzywacz & Butler, 2005). In a stressful environment, individuals may choose not to have children or delay their childbearing plans to protect their existing resources. Therefore, those with lower perceived DW are more likely to prioritize protecting their resources by delaying or forgoing having children, and they also tend to have lower levels of FI.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 1: DW have a significant positive effect on FI.

Main effect of DW on WFC

We define WFC as a mutual conflict between work and family roles (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). According to COR theory, individuals in stressful environments will allocate more resources to protect their existing resources from loss. The pressure of losing economic and psychological resources can complicate work-family relationships in such environments (Abe et al., 2017). When individuals face a complex and volatile environment, they may worry about losing their jobs and income. They may invest more in their work to avoid unemployment, leading to increased WFC. Previous research has found that job insecurity has a significant positive effect on WFC (Nauman et al., 2020). In terms of psychological resources, low perceptions of DW can contribute to negative emotions at work and have spillover effects on family occasions, such as spousal health (Westman et al., 2001), children’s academic performance (Barling & Mendelson,1999), the life of the family, and life well-being (Cuyper et al., 2008). Therefore, when the perception of DW is low, individuals experience a depletion of economic and psychological resources. Individuals tend to allocate more resources toward their work environment and less to their family environment to safeguard these resources from depletion. Consequently, this imbalance exacerbates the conflict between work and family responsibilities.

Thus, we propose that:

Hypothesis 2: DW have a significant negative effect on WFC.

Main effect of WFC on FI

According to COR theory, people acquire, invest in, and protect resources they value to cope with depression and stress (Hobfoll, 1989). Resource availability can alleviate role conflict between family and work (Yang et al., 2022). WFC is triggered when individuals have unequal time and psychological resources distribution between work and family. From the perspective of time resources, being too busy at work can lead to less time for the family, as time and energy are limited resources (García-Rodríguez, et al., 2021). More focus on family means less investment in work, creating a time conflict between work and family. Previous studies have shown that time pressure at work significantly reduces individuals’ FI (Shreffler, et al., 2010). Regarding psychological resources, work pressure can lead to psychological stress, which can negatively impact family life. This may manifest as a lack of participation in family activities, reluctance to share with family members, and feelings of anxiety and restlessness (Lu et al., 2019). Previous studies indicate that anxiety disorder has a significant mediating effect between WFC and willingness to have three children (Jiang et al., 2022). When employees face the pressure of dual roles at work and family, they have difficulty acquiring new resources and consuming existing resources (Wang et al., 2022). Individuals who are unable to dedicate more time and mental resources to their work due to caring for young children may delay or choose not to have children (Begall & Mills, 2011), especially among women and highly educated employees (Schieman & Glavin, 2011; Gaio Santos & Cabral‐Cardoso, 2008).

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 3: WFC negatively affect individual’s FI.

Mediating effect of WFC

Employees with a low perception of DW experience are more likely to lose time and psychological resources. To compensate, individuals may work longer hours to secure income and job opportunities, leading to time allocation pressures and conflicts between work and family. Previous studies have found that time pressure reduces individuals’ FI (Matera et al., 2023). When people suffer from a loss of psychological resources, it can lead to negative emotions at work spilling over into their family life, causing conflict between their work and family roles (Lu et al., 2019). People who cannot gain respect and realize self-value from work are more likely to experience negative emotions, leading to a depletion of psychological resources (Ramarajan et al., 2008). Thus, in non-decent environments, individuals lose time and psychological resources, causing conflict between work and family roles, which reduces FI.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 4: WFC mediates the link between DW and FI.

Moderating Effect of OS

OS refers to an individual’s contribution and perception of the organization and its recognition of it (Hellman et al., 2006). WFC occurs when work responsibilities cannot be reconciled with family responsibilities (Boles et al., 2001). Based on COR theory, OS can be seen as an essential personal resource for reducing WFC (van Wijk, Billari (2024)). OS has been found to be effective in mitigating the relationship between work and family (Hobfoll, 1989). Organizations compensate employees, ensure their safety and security, and recognize their contributions, which help them better balance work and family roles by accumulating personal resources (Allen, 2001; Gündüz (2014)). Therefore, when employees are provided with OS, the negative correlation between DW and WFC is weakened.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 5: OS negatively moderates the link between DW and WFC.

Moderating Effect of FS

As a crucial component of social support, FS entails the provision of assistance by family members to alleviate an individual’s work-related stress and fulfill personal needs. Previous studies have shown that FS has a spillover effect on the workplace (Beehr et al., 2000; Park, 2003; Rees et al., 2007). Based on the COR theory, FS can be considered as a personal resource (Leung et al., 2020). It impacts both individual work roles and family roles by providing emotional and instrumental support. Emotional support provided by family members can create a sense of trust and closeness for individuals, motivate them to gain a sense of achievement (Karatepe, 2015), and reduce WFC. Previous studies have also shown that FS has a significant spillover effect on an individual’s work behavior and increases productivity (Matsui et al., 1995). Research indicates that a family’s instrumental support can help employees invest more time and energy in the workplace by providing household and financial assistance (Leung et al., 2020). As a result, Instrumental support from the family can reduce the impact of low DW and minimize conflict between roles. Consequently, individuals with low DW perceptions experience lower levels of WFC when they receive more adequate FS.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 6: FS negatively moderates the link between DW and WFC.

Moderating Effect of gender

Married women are primarily responsible for childbearing and often invest significant time and energy in raising children. The emergence of information technology and the digital economy has opened a wealth of job opportunities, particularly with women demonstrating remarkable skills in processing information (Bevilacqua, 2017). This has increased their employment prospects but also heightened work-family conflict. When struggling to balance family and work, some women may take a career interruption for childbirth (Valentova, 2016). However, upon returning to the workplace, they often face penalties such as reduced income (Mortelmans & Frans, 2017), fewer job opportunities, and challenges in promotion (Månsson et al., 2013). Consequently, women experience more pronounced work-family conflict compared to men. Research indicates that work-family conflict negatively impacts fertility intentions; thus, female workers experiencing this conflict tend to express lower desires to have children.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 7: When faced with WFC, female workers tend to have lower FI than male workers.

Moderating Effect of JA

Job autonomy refers to the excellent ability to act with a sense of volition and involves the enriching experience of making decisions regarding one’s work (Gagné & Deci, 2005). According to conservation of resource, JA is an asset for workers. Flexible employment enhances JA in the gig economy, allowing workers to utilize flexible hours and locations for fragmented tasks (Malik et al., 2021). This autonomy helps employees overcome time and space constraints, alleviating work-family conflicts and fostering positive interactions between work and family roles. Consequently, employees with JA can effectively manage fragmented assignments within their available time, leading to a better balance between work responsibilities and family obligations. This indirectly reduces childbirth costs and increases the willingness to have children.

Therefore, we propose that:

Hypothesis 8: When faced with WFC, individuals with high JA tend to express a higher FI.

Procedures and samples

The study was approved by the Academic Ethics Committee of the Business School on 20 November 2024. Before starting the questionnaire, subjects were given a consent form to read and sign. The survey is anonymous, and the data will only be used for academic research, not for commercial purposes. The research data will be saved on an encrypted computer and kept by a dedicated person. The questionnaire was posted online on Questionnaire Star from 21 November to 26 November 2024, which lasted for 6 days. The survey was conducted using a random sampling method. We kindly invited employed individuals aged 22 and above to participate by sending them online questionnaires randomly, encouraging their valuable input in completing the survey. Finally, we distributed a total of 550 questionnaires. 520 valid questionnaires were obtained, with a validity rate of 94.54%.

The questionnaire consisted of three parts. Part one is the survey background, which explains the purpose, the scope of the study, and the survey content. Part two is the demographic variables, which include gender, age, marital status, number of children, education level, ownership, annual household income, and city location. Part three is variable measurement, including WFC, OS, FS, DW, FI and JA. The variables were measured using a 5-point Likert scale, with 1 indicating strongly disagree, 2 indicating relatively disagree, 3 mainly indicating agree, and 4 indicating disagree. Moreover, 3 for mostly agree, 4 for more agree, and 5 for strongly agree.

The sample’s descriptive statistics are shown in Table 1. 97.31% of the sample were aged between 18 and 50, representing a high proportion. 57.5% of the respondents were female and 42.5% were male. Regarding marital status, the majority (86.15%) of the sample is married, and 70.58% have one child. The married and childbearing group comprises more than half of the sample, aligning with the survey’s focus on the WFC. Regarding education level, 87.88% have a bachelor’s degree, and 10.96% have a master’s degree. As for occupation, private and State-owned enterprise account for 62.12% and 22.88%, respectively. In terms of annual household income, 5.77% have a yearly income of less than 100,000 yuan, and 62.31% have an annual income of between 100,000 and 300,000 yuan, which is close to half of the respondents, indicating that there are more households with medium income; 27.12% of have an annual income of 300,000 to 500,000 yuan, and 4.81% of the households have a yearly income of 500,000 yuan or more. Regarding city location, super first-tier cities account for 35.77%, first-tier cities account for 32.12%, 17.5% are in second-tier cities, 8.65% are in third-tier cities, and 5.96% in fourth-tier cities and below.

Measures

We used well-established Chinese and English questionnaires as measurement tools for the variables. WFC, OS, FS, FI, and JA are English questionnaires among them. We used the back-to-back translation method by inviting a postgraduate student to translate the English questionnaire into Chinese. Another graduate student will translate the Chinese questionnaire into English. Next, a professor of human resource management will review the translated questionnaire alongside the original to ensure consistency in expressions. The DW questionnaire was developed in the Chinese context, so the questionnaire was not translated back-to-back.

Decent Work

The DW scale was selected from the scale developed by Yan et al. (2023a) in the Chinese context. The scale consists of 13 items in 4 dimensions: job security (JS), respect and support (RS), self-value (SV), and professional skills (PS). JS includes three items on, e.g., My income is secured, etc. RS includes four questions: My work gives me respect, recognition, etc. SV contains three items: I can work with autonomy, freedom, etc. PS contains three questions: My job requires high competence, etc.

Work-Family Conflict

WFC scale was selected from Divna Haslam et al., (2015) WFC Scale (Haslam et al., (2015)). The scale categorizes WFC into two dimensions, WTFC and FTWC, with 10 items. There are five WTFC items, e.g., My work me spending sufficient quality time with my family, etc. There are also five FTWC items, e.g., My work performance suffers because of my personal and family commitments, etc.

Fertility Intention

We measured FI using a single item from Lampic et al. (2006): “I have the willingness to have children”. There are five options to answer: “Not will at all,” “No will,” “Normal,” “With a will,” and “With a strong will”.

Organizational Support

According to Yang et al. (2018) and Hao et al. (2016), the OS questionnaire consists of 6 items in total. It is a single dimension, e.g., The enterprise attaches great importance to my work goals and values.

Family Support

FS scale is from King et al. (1995) scale. The scale consists of 40 items. Eight highly correlated items were chosen to assess FS, divided into instrumental and emotional support dimensions. Instrumental support consists of four items: “Members of my family help me with routine household tasks,” etc. Emotional support consists of four items: “My family members seem very interested in hearing about my workday,” etc.

Job Autonomy

We used the Spector & Fox, 2003 scale to measure JA (Spector & Fox, 2003). The scale contains 10 items, and we selected three related to work time autonomy and workplace autonomy. They are “How often do you have to ask permission to leave early for the day or come late to work?”, “How often do you have to ask permission to change the hours you work?” “How often do you have to ask permission to leave my office or workstation?”

Control Variables

The demographic variables were age, number of children, education background, occupation, annual household income, and city location, which were used as control variables for the study.

Reflective model test

Internal Consistency

We used SmartPLS to test the internal consistency of the scales by using Cronbach’s α and Composite Reliability (CR). The results showed that the Cronbach’s α of DW was 0.846, which was significantly greater than 0.7, indicating that the reliability of the 13-item scale was excellent. The Cronbach’s α of WFC was 0.913, indicating that the reliability of the 10-item scale was excellent. Cronbach’s α of the OS 6-item scale was 0.813, indicating good reliability. Cronbach’s α for the FS scale was 0.690, indicating that the 8-item scale has appropriate reliability. The Cronbach’s α for job autonomy was 0.869, indicating the 3-item scale has good reliability (Appendix Table 1). CR of all factors is higher than 0.7 (Hair et al., (2022)), demonstrating reliable consistency of the scale (Appendix Table 1).

Convergent validity

We tested the scale’s convergent validity using loadings and average variance extracted (AVE). All item loadings are over than 0.4 except for item professional skills 2 and 3. Furthermore, we tested the AVE of all factors to confirm whether the item should be deleted. The AVE values of item professional skills 2 and 3 are over 0.5 (Appendix Table 1). Thus, these two items could be kept.

Discriminant validity

We tested the discriminant validity of the scale by comparing the square root of AVE and the correlation coefficients of factor loadings based on Fornell-Larcker criterion. Specifically, reasonable discriminant validity is indicated when the square root of AVE for each factor exceeds its correlation with other factors (Henseler et al., 2015). According to the data analysis, all variable factors had AVE square root values more significant than their correlations with other factors, confirming that the scale has good discriminant validity (Appendix Table 2).

Formative model test

Evaluation of collinearity

We used the variance inflation factor (VIF) to assess collinearity in the formative model. According to Hair et al. (2022), a VIF value below 5 indicates no collinearity (Hair et al., (2022)). Since all factors’ VIF values are under 5, this study shows no collinearity (Appendix Table 3).

Path coefficients of the structural model

We use path coefficients to assess the relationship between independent and dependent variables. A higher path coefficient indicates a stronger effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. According to Fig. 3, the study found a significant negative relationship between DW and WFC through direct path analyses (β = −0.148 p < 0.001), a negative association between WFC and FI (β = −0.105, p < 0.001), a positive relationship between DW and FI (β = 0.273, p < 0.001).

R² and f² effect size

We utilize the coefficient of determination (R²) to measure the overall effect size and variance explained by the independent variable. The R² for FI and WFC are 0.196 and 0.268, respectively, exceeding the minimum acceptable value of 0.19. f² predicts the impact of the independent variable on the dependent variable when it is excluded from the model. The finding showed a moderate effect of DW on FI (f² = 0.076) (Cohen,1988).

Main effect

We use Partial Lease Square-Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to verify the hypotheses. The reasons are, firstly, the non-probability sampling used in this study. The sample distribution does not conform to the normal distribution, but the PLS-SEM model does not require a high distributional state. It can effectively deal with covariance between variables under minor sample conditions and is more suitable for exploratory analyses of newly constructed model structures (Zomer et al., 2020). Second, PLS-SEM is more reliable for estimating models with multiple structures and path relationships. It is suitable for complex model settings like second-order latent variables and interaction terms in measured variables. According to the theoretical model, JS, RS, SV, and PS are the first-order latent variables in DW. The items serve as measurement variables for each of these first-order latent variables, constituting the second-order latent variable of DW. Similarly, WTFC and FTWC in WFC are first-order latent variables measured by 8 items, and family emotional support (FES) and family instrumental support (FIS) are the first-order latent variables measured by 10 items as well. The two first-order latent variables then constitute WFC and FS as a second-order latent variable respectively. The relationship between first-order latent variables and measurement variables is reflective. This means that measurement items can reflect the first-order latent variables, such as JS, but they cannot determine them. However, the relationship between the first and second-order latent variables is formative. This is because the DW and WFC comprise 13 and 8 items, respectively. Therefore, any change in these items will result in a change in the conceptual dimension. The first-order latent variables and second-order latent variables, as well as the relationships between the variables, construct a reflective-formative hierarchical model (See Fig. 2).

Reflective-formative hierarchical model.

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We use SmartPLS4.0 to analyze the data. We utilize a path weighting scheme to estimate the parameters and bootstrapping to test the model parameters. The factor loading coefficients are presented in Fig. 3. All factor loading coefficients exceed 0.7 and have passed the significance test.

Path factor diagram.

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As shown in Table 2, the path coefficient of DW on FI is 0.270, with a t-value of 5.979 and a confidence interval ranging from 0.196 to 0.345, which does not contain 0. Therefore, H1 is supported. The path coefficient of DW on WFC is −0.134 with a t-value of 2.920 and a confidence interval ranging from −0.268 to −0.024, which do not contain 0, so H2 is supported as well. The path coefficient of WFC on FI is −0.148, with a t-value of 1.985 and a confidence interval ranging from −0.058 to −0.208, which does not contain 0. Therefore, H3 is supported.

Mediating effects

We test the mediating effect of WFC using the bootstrapping method (shown in Table 3) with 10,000 subsamples. The confidence interval for the indirect effect spans from 5% to 95%. The data results indicate that the indirect effect of DW on FI is 0.020 (p < 0.05), indicating that WFC plays a mediating effect between DW and FI. Thus, H4 is supported.

Moderating effects

We used SmartPLS4.0 to test the moderating effects in the theoretical models. Table 5 shows that the path coefficient of OS between DW and WFC is −0.114, with a t-value of 2.914 (p < 0.05). Therefore, H5 is supported. Since the interaction between DW and OS is negative, the negative impact of DW on WFC will be weakened when OS is high. High OS can reduce the negative relationship between DW and WFC, while low OS can strengthen the negative relationship between DW and WFC (see Fig. 4).

The negative moderating effect of OS on WFC and DW.

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The coefficient of FS between DW is −0.063 (see Table 4), with an insignificant t-value. Thus, H6 is not supported. The coefficient of JA between WFC and FI is 0.035, with an insignificant t-value. As a result, H8 is not supported.

We used SPSSAU, an online data processing software, to examine the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between WFC and FI. Gender is a categorical moderating variable, while WFC (independent variable) and FI (dependent variable) are continuous variables. Thus, three regression models need to be constructed for testing.

Model 1: Analyzing the impact of WFC on FI without considering the influence of gender.

Model 2: Analyzing the impact of WFC on FI with the influence of gender.

Model 3: Add an interaction effect between WFC and gender in Model 2 and analyze the impact of WFC on FI.

As shown in Table 5, the non-standardized regression coefficient of the interaction between WFC and gender is −0.014, with a t value of −0.129, which is insignificant. The ΔF for Model 2 and 3 is 0.017 with the insignificant p-value. Therefore, the moderating effect of gender between WFC and FI is insignificant. Thus, H7 is not supported.

Conclusions and discussions

Based on COR theory, this study creates a theoretical framework model linking DW, WFC, FI, OS, FS, JA and gender. We investigated the spillover effect of DW on FI through the mediating effect of WFC using questionnaire data. We found that: (1) DW significantly positively affects FI. (2) DW has a significant positive effect on FI through the mediating effect of WFC. (3) DW has negative impact on WFC. (4) OS have a significant negative moderating effect between DW and WFC.

We do not verify the moderating effect of FS between DW and WFC. The main subjects in this study were working employees in mainland China. The parenting model of grandparental caregiving is dominant in Chinese cultural tradition, and the FS provided by elderly parents is an important supplementary resource for couples’ parenting (Chen et al., 2024). The FS from elderly parents to their children can be categorized into FIS and FES (King et al., 1995). FIS includes household assistance and financial aid, which helps reduce WFC for young couples. In contrast, FES is less effective due to differing parenting concepts between elderly parents and young couples, potentially increasing family conflicts (Guo et al., 2024). The impact of two types of FS on WFC may counterbalance, making the moderating effect of FS between DW and WFC insignificant. However, a study conducted on employees in Turkey revealed that when family demands become challenging to fulfill, the WFC tends to diminish the connection between DW and the intention to leave (Aybas et al., 2022). This research in Turkey, consistent with our study, confirms the strong correlation between WFC and DW while highlighting the complexity of their relationship. Future research should focus on the interplay between DW and WFC across different countries, regions, cultural backgrounds, and groups.

We do not verify the moderating effects of JA between WFC and FI. JA allows employees to freely choose their working hours, locations, and methods. The primary forms of JA are flexible hours and remote work. Previous studies indicate that flexible working hours and remote work can reduce WFC (Allen et al., 2013). However, other research suggests that remote work blurs the boundary between work and life in that employees can alter their work behaviors independently (Chung, 2024). The use of digital technology in the workplace has increased role transitions between work and family, making the boundaries even more blurred (Farivar et al., 2022). Therefore, the conclusion that JA alleviates WFC has been challenged. Previous studies indicate that job crafting can reduce work stress and enhance work-family relationships (Rudolph et al., 2017), while work-family segmentation also influences conflict (Choi, 2024). Future research should incorporate job crafting and work-family segmentation into the theoretical model.

We do not verify the moderating effect of gender between WFC and FI. WFC faced by employees in mainland China continues to rise due to the lack of a family-friendly environment. Due to family roles, women often bear greater household and childcare responsibilities, leading to more significant WFC (Luppi & Mencarini, 2018). Moreover, women face career interruptions and a motherhood penalty due to childbirth (Mortelmans & Frans, 2017). Consequently, WFC leads to lower FI among women. Research also indicates that men’s WFC is increasing rapidly (Xin et al., 2020), which significantly influences men’s FI regarding their wives (Shreffler et al., 2010). Moreover, as couples have more children, their satisfaction decreases. Consequently, men who encounter WFC show a reduced willingness to have children, considering the marital relationship and the wife’s feelings. Thus, gender does not significantly moderate the relationship between WFC and FI. However, the impact of WFC on women’s FI is significant in a family-friendly society. For instance, a study on female managers in South Korea found that family-friendly policies would indirectly affect WFC and FI (Hassan et al., 2024). The discrepancy between our findings and the South Korean study may stem from family-friendly policies. Future research should re-examine gender differences in WFC and FI across groups with varying fertility policy backgrounds.

Theoretical contributions

First, this study verifies that DW has a significant positive impact on FI. We initially explore DW’s spillover effect on family occasions and expand the research on DW and work-family relations. Previously, DW studies have been conducted in the workplace. It has been found that DW has a significant impact on individuals’ innovative behavior (Kang, 2021), work engagement (Kashyap et al., 2022), work motivation (Ferraro et al., 2018), and psychological capital (Huang et al., 2022). In recent years, some scholars have attempted to conduct DW research on work-family relations. Studies have found that DW significantly impacts FI through the mediating effect of work-family balance (Geng et al., 2024). According to COR theory, resource accumulation involves both gains and losses. However, Geng et al.’s (2024) research focused solely on facilitating factors that influence FI, focusing on resource gain, while overlooking hindering factors like resource loss. Individuals tend to prioritize the potential loss of resources from childbirth over the resources gained. Thus, analyzing the impact of DW on FI through the lens of resource loss can better illustrate the resistance mechanisms affecting individual fertility decisions.

Second, this study employs a micro DW scale to address the inconsistency between macro- and micro-level research tools and enhance research on DW’s micro-level. Previous studies have used macro DW measurement tools to explore its impact on work-family relations (Kabir et al., 2023). However, work-family relations and FI are based on individual perceptions at the micro level. As a result, there is an inconsistency between the measurement tools. To address these deficiencies, we introduce a micro DW scale to validate the theoretical model. This improvement makes the findings more convincing and expands the relevant research on the micro-level of DW.

Third, we confirmed the moderating effects of OS on the relationship between DW and WFC, expanding the application of COR theory in both work and family contexts. COR theory has been widely used in studies related to WFC and DW. Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999 first used COR theory to explain the effects of WFC on individual attitudes and behavior (Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999). Scholars believe that positive emotions at work can be regarded as job resources, such as job embeddedness (Rubenstein et al., 2020), job satisfaction (Kalliath et al., 2020), and perceived supervisor support (Zhang et al., 2020). However, they do not apply COR theory to examine the impact of the workplace on the family through the exchange of resources between the two domains. As a result, we introduce OS as a job resource into the theoretical model and validate their moderating roles, expanding the scope of application of COR theory.

Practical Implications

The study results indicate that DW has a significant negative impact on FI, which is mediated by WFC. The findings of this study lay a theoretical foundation for governments to formulate labor market policies. Women’s fertility attitudes will be negative in an unstable employment environment and economic uncertainty (Matera et al., 2023). Therefore, the government needs to achieve DW and increase FI by stabilizing employment and providing skills training. For employees lacking professional skills, the government can improve employability by offering skills training to achieve a stable income, increasing their FI. For skilled knowledge workers, the government can improve employment and income stability for the childbearing age group by extending maternity leave, providing the same maternity leave to both genders, and increasing childcare subsidies.

This study also found that OS have a significant effect on mitigating WFC, which informs the development of humane management policies for organizations. A relaxed work environment is essential for balancing resources between employees and their families in the workplace (Dixon & Sagas, 2007). Hence, organizations can foster a comfortable work environment, offer flexible hours, and provide childcare and parenting support with consistent policies for male and female employees. Both parents can share in child rearing, reducing the pressure on mothers and gender discrimination at work. In addition, enterprises are encouraged to establish childcare centers for infants and children aged 0–3. They can work with communities to develop childcare institutions if unfavorable, helping women with breastfeeding, caregiving, and other activities.

Limitations and future directions

Despite our best efforts to ensure scientific objectivity, some limitations did arise in the study. Firstly, the sample is limited to one country. Although we tried our best to make the sample as diverse as possible regarding age, region, occupation, and income, the sample was selected from mainland China due to the limited time and financial limitations. More samples from other countries and regions worldwide needed to be included in the survey. Second, the data structure is limited. This study only analyzed cross-sectional data and did not use longitudinal time-series data. In fact, FI may vary due to factors such as age, income, and career changes. Cross-sectional data struggles to capture changes in FI over time. Third, the gap between FI and fertility behavior is not considered. Previous research has shown a gap between FI and fertility behavior (Beaujouan & Berghammer, 2019). Stronger FI does not always predict actual fertility behavior and weaker FI does not predict the absence of fertility behavior. Therefore, considering only the dependent variable of FI in a theoretical model cannot truly predict an individual’s fertility behavior.

Future research can be carried out in three ways. First, we aim to expand the sampling scope to all parts of the world by strengthening cooperation with international scholars. This will diversify the sample and lay the data foundation for comparative studies in different countries and regions. Second, we want to conduct a longitudinal study to verify the stability of the theoretical model by re-investigating the original group of subjects one year or three years later. Finally, we want to introduce fertility behavior as a dependent variable, job crafting and work family segmentation as moderators into the model and use the data from the longitudinal survey to observe the gap between fertility intention and behavior and explore the boundaries of the role of the fertility gap.