Pastoralism and women’s role in food security in the Ethiopian Somali region

The term “pastoralists” refers to social groupings that depend on the products of their domesticated animals and plan their settlement and mobility methods to accommodate the dietary requirements of their livestock. Pastoralism is a way of life, particularly in Africa and Asia, in which people make their living choices by moving from one place to another in search of food and a climate suitable for livestock. They may also be semi-nomadic. The phrase is frequently used to refer to the traditional way of life of several Indigenous tribes all over the world, where people depend on the herding of domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, camels, or others for survival (Gifford-Gonzalez, 2005). In many regions of the world, pastoralism is still a significant economic and cultural activity with a long history. To manage pastoral activities there is great knowledge needed and some pastoralists use ancient knowledge and methods like seasonal migration, grazing and rotating with the availability of resources, and the utilization of animal breeds that are drought resistant, therefore, pastoralists have devised a variety of tactics for managing their herds and the environment and mostly pastoral productions are claimed to be found in climatic zones such as deserts, dry plains and the lands which are not suitable for agriculture due to arid and semi-arid conditions (Behnke et al. 2011). Though pastoralism is essential and it has a significant role in food security for ages but the concept of food security has gained increasing attention in recent years, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where high levels of food insecurity persist. Food security refers to the availability, accessibility, and affordability of food for all individuals at all times. It is a multifaceted concept that includes both the quantity and quality of food consumed, as well as the social, economic, and environmental factors that influence food access (Bjornlund et al., (2022)). Pastoral lands occupy 60% of Ethiopia and are home to 12–15% of the human population as well as vast amounts of livestock. Residents in pastoral regions have the least access to education and human health services in the nation, and their infrastructure is the least developed, demonstrating their isolation from mainstream development. Furthermore, the livelihoods of pastoral communities are jeopardised by animal disease, drought, and unfavorable trade terms. Shinile district is one of the poorest in Somalia, as shown by family’s low livestock ownership compared to other pastoralist districts (Devereux, 2006). Livestock raising is the district’s principal source of income, as it is for other pastoralists. The district’s major livelihood strategy is a mix of cattle and charcoal or firewood sale (Bogale & Erena, 2022). Many households in Ethiopia collect and sell firewood and charcoal to supplement their household income from livestock rearing to cope with this livelihood stress. These supplementary income-generating activities have a negative impact on the environment. Charcoal burning, in particular, is often criticized for inflicting environmental harm, and some efforts have been made to restrict it, although these rules are barely implemented (Berhanu, 2019). According to (Ayele, 2019), activities such as selling firewood are considered to be within the purview of women, while the raising of livestock, the production of charcoal, and travel are seen to fall under the purview of males.

Ethiopian pastoralists have always been marginalized. Pastoralists face critical development concerns such as resource degradation, rising poverty, and a lack of food security. While all pastoralists face marginalization, pastoralist women face double marginalization because they are both pastoralists and women (Flintan, 2007).

In Africa women have historically been disadvantaged (Sajuyigbe & Fadeyibi, 2017).

Women in Ethiopia’s pastoralist society are relegated to subservient roles inside the home. The Somali society is characterized by strong male dominance. Within the context of the family, women often have a lower level of decision-making authority (Gurmu 2018; Balehey et al., 2018). These women feel devalued and refer to themselves as “the half of men.” According to their culture, if a man is slain, his family is required to get one hundred camels as compensation. If a lady is slain, her family will only get fifty camels as compensation. Therefore, women are only considered to be the male half of the population (Kinati, Temple, Baker, & Najjar, 2023). In addition, as compared with pastoralist males, the work and obligations that are placed on pastoralist women are disproportionately heavy. Men often go with most of the herds when they move. Women are the only ones left behind to care for the household, which includes the children and any animals that are left behind. This places a significant burden on them. Despite the significant contributions that pastoralist women make to pastoral life, they have very restricted access to and control over the most important producing resources. It is possible that milk trade contributes very little to their overall revenue. In addition to this, males are the ones who facilitate their access to resources such as animals (Wallace & March, 1991). The role of women in pastoral activities is a critical issue, particularly in the Somali region, where women play a significant role in livestock management and other pastoral activities. Despite this, women’s contributions to pastoralism are often overlooked, and they face significant challenges in accessing resources and participating in decision-making processes (Walker et al., 2022).

All of this confirms that gender equality and women empowerment are critical components of long-term economic development and poverty reduction (Radovic Markovic, 2015).

In Ethiopia, pastoralism is a significant contributor to the national economy, particularly in the Somali region, where it provides livelihoods for millions of people. However, despite the important role of pastoralism in the region, food insecurity remains a significant challenge. (Bogale & Erena, 2022).

Therefore, this study aims to explore the role of pastoralism in enhancing food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia, with a special focus on the contributions and challenges of women involved in pastoral activities. It seeks to understand the dynamics of pastoralism within this context, the adaptive strategies in the face of environmental and socio-economic changes, and to shed light on the often-understated roles women play in this sector. To accomplish the objectives of this study, it is important to answer three primary research questions.

1. 1.

   What is the role of pastoralism in enhancing food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia?

2. 2.

   How do women contribute to pastoral activities and how do pastoral communities in the Somali region of Ethiopia perceive the role of women in enhancing food security?

3. 3.

   What are the institutional and policy factors that influence the role of pastoralism in enhancing food security, and how can these be improved to support sustainable pastoral practices and food security outcomes?

The study is innovative in several ways. The Somali region of Ethiopia is a relatively unexplored region in terms of pastoralism and food security. There is a dearth of study on the Somali area, with the majority of studies on pastoralism in Ethiopia concentrating on the Afar and Borana regions (Benti et al., 2022; Demeke, 2019; Tilahun et al., 2016; Balehey et al., 2018). Therefore, by offering insights on how pastoralism might improve food security in Ethiopia’s Somali area, the study will close a gap in the research. Second, the study adopts a gender-sensitive strategy for pastoral development, which is unusual in Ethiopia. On these bases, the contribution will provide a more nuanced view of the function of women in pastoral activities and how their involvement might enhance food security in the area. Thirdly, the study employs a qualitative methodology, a relatively new technique in the field of Ethiopian research on pastoralism and food security. The majority of research on Ethiopian pastoralism and food security has used quantitative techniques. Therefore, the paper will provide a more thorough and nuanced knowledge of the difficulties and chances faced by pastoral communities in Ethiopia’s Somali area.

Despite of the certain limitations of the study, the answers to the research questions will provide new insights and shed light on the intricate dynamics of pastoralism, the adaptive strategies employed in response to environmental and socio-economic changes, and the often-understated roles women play in this sector and particularly in this region. This study examine the relationship between gender roles and pastoralism, offering a sophisticated perspective of the ways in which culture, ethnicity, and economic circumstances interact with gender to influence women’s roles in ensuring food security in pastoral communities. Consequently, this will help to shape policy recommendations and practical interventions to support sustainable pastoralism and enhance food security in the region.

Theoretical framework

The study is anchored to the gender and development theory(GAD) that recognizes how gender roles and relationships influence the distribution of power, resources, and opportunities within societies (Harcourt, 2016). In the context of pastoralism, the GAD theory is especially pertinent because it acknowledges women’s crucial role in food production and security (March, Smyth, & Mukhopadhyay, 1999).

Resilience theory has been also taken into consideration as a framework for understanding the capacity of social and ecological systems to adapt and recover from disturbances and disruptions. Pastoralists face numerous challenges, such as climate change, land degradation, and resource conflicts; therefore, resilience theory has been considered particularly applicable to the context of pastoralism security (Mason et al., 2022; Johansson et al., 2023).

The theoretical framework of the livelihoods approach has been also considered as emphasizes the role of livelihoods in reducing poverty and fostering development. In the context of pastoralism. This approach is especially pertinent, given that pastoralists confront numerous threats to their livelihoods and nutritional security. In pastoral communities, women play a crucial role in enhancing livelihoods and nutritional security (Fang, Zhu, Zhang, Rasul, & Neupane, 2020).

The role of pastoralism in enhancing food security

Pastoralism is one of the most common activities in African especially in the Somali region and it is considered as the best source for sustenance and for meeting the basic nutritional needs. Therefore, there is need of proper management in the pastoral activities and promoting the different pastoral styles could lead to a greater food security (Zigale, 2021). Among many of them is Transhumance pastoralism, it is a style of livestock farming where herders migrate their cattle from one grazing region to another in search of better pasture and water. For many rural populations in West Africa, transhumance pastoralism is a significant source of income. For pastoralists and their families, as well as for those who consume animal products like milk, meat, and leather, it provides a source of money and sustenance. By encouraging sustainable land use techniques, transhumance pastoralism can also contribute to the preservation of the region’s biodiversity and ecosystem services (Bogale & Erena, 2022). Yet, there are several difficulties that transhumance pastoralism must overcome, including disputes with other land users, environmental degradation, and climate change (Timpong-Jones et al., 2023). Sharma and Choudhury (2021) rgued transhumance pastoralism is contributing to food security in several ways which includes dairy products for consumption, increasing soil fertility which results in more crop production and pastoralism serves as an income generating activity for many pastoralists as some of the pastoralists sell their livestock products in the local markets to purchase their food and other necessary items. The conversion of traditional land into private ownership was happening over time. The Maasai pastoralists had lost their land due to the growth of private landholding. As the natural resources in the region are immediately impacted by the change in land use, the expropriation of their customary community land raises questions about the future of pastoralism (Chianchiano, 2021). Also, it was claimed that the push for land subdivision was having an adverse effect on conventional coping mechanisms, notably herd seasonal migration (Mbih, Ndzeidze, Wanyama, & Mbuh, 2022).In many areas of the globe, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where crop production is often impractical, pastoralism has been crucial in boosting food security. Pastoralism is the practise of raising and managing animals for both domestic and commercial uses, such as cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. The nutritional well-being of pastoral communities depends on a supply of protein and other nutrients, which may be found in livestock products including milk, meat, and other by-products. Additionally, cattle may be sold and traded to generate revenue (Ikhuoso et al., 2020). The contribution of pastoralism to improving food security is complex and may be seen from several angles. First and foremost, pastoralism offers a source of food security since pastoral populations directly consume cattle products. Particularly in regions where crop development is impractical owing to environmental factors, livestock products provide a consistent supply of protein, vitamins, and minerals. Livestock products are an essential part of the diet for many pastoral communities, giving them the nutrients, they need to preserve their health and well-being (Adenle, Wedig, & Azadi, 2019). By giving pastoral communities, a means of generating cash, pastoralism improves food security. Pastoralists may earn money through selling and trading livestock in local and regional markets, which they can use to buy food and other necessities. The ability to use cattle as collateral for loans gives pastoralists access to credit and other financial services that they may utilise to improve their standard of living(Faraz et al., 2021). Through improving ecosystem services including soil fertility, water accessibility, and biodiversity, pastoralism helps to food security. Through the production of manure, which can be used as fertiliser for crops, livestock may contribute to increasing the fertility of the soil. Livestock may also contribute to preserving plant cover, reducing soil erosion, and preserving water availability. The variety of plant and animal species in pastoral systems, which serves as a source of genetic resources for food and other uses, also adds to food security (Estrada-Carmona, Attwood, Cole, Remans, & DeClerck, 2020) By acting as a buffer against natural shocks like droughts and floods, pastoralism may improve food security. Because animals can adjust to shifting environmental circumstances and provide as a source of food and revenue during times of shortage, pastoral systems are often more adaptable to environmental shocks than crop agriculture(Alemu, Mengistu (2019)).

Women’s Role in Pastoral Activities

Pastoralism is not only a sustainable way of life, but it also successfully conserves vulnerable natural resources and makes a major contribution to national economies. Nevertheless, individuals on the periphery of the pastoralist economy are particularly susceptible due to high rates of population increase, declines in animal herds, and constraints on access to rangeland, all of which are exacerbated by climate change and quite frequently, these are women. Women have important roles in the pastoralist economy, but they are side-lined by institutions and policies both in their local communities and in national administration. Eastern Africa and the Horn of Africa have a promising future for pastoralism, but only if the causes of women’s marginalization are recognized and handled (Demeke, 2019). Pastoralism is the major source of a total of 10% of meat production in the world and it supports about 200 billion households and herds of nearly a billion head of animals that help for sustenance (Gai, 2020). Pastoralism is globally important for the different services it provides in terms of food, environment, and economic contributions and especially for the poorest regions of the world. As pastoralism is growing especially in African countries access and control over pastoral resources are still in question, because mostly in some societies women do not have access to resources and they do not enjoy an equal status or rights as men, however, as said by(Niamir-Fuller, Huber-Sannwald (2020)). Somali women pastoralists lead very vulnerable socio-economic conditions and highly marginalized and living in very vulnerable areas. This is mainly caused due to their low access and control over pastoral key resources and hence this limited control restricts their ownership. Apart from livestock ownership, women do not own the land and their long-living tradition dictates that men are the true owners of the land (Ayele, 2019).

Women in pastoral communities: challenges and opportunities

The difficulties that pastoralist women encounter in supporting their families can have an influence on the education of girls and their ability to contribute to communal life. Particularly, pastoralist women must put in more time than males to complete their home responsibilities, which include cooking daily meals for the whole family (Dungumaro & Amos, 2019). As explained by Mulwa (2019), women in Isiolo county, Kenya, their inability to serve a range of meals is hampered by the lack of dietary diversity. In terms of their contribution to pastoralism, pastoralist women play a significant role in safeguarding the wellbeing of their families and communities as well as serving as the primary food suppliers in their homes. They oversee things like milking livestock, gathering water and firewood, making meals, and looking after young children and the old. Yet, they have difficulties in putting food diversifying plans into effect because of cultural customs, stigmas, and traditions, as well as a lack of knowledge and expertise about the value of embracing new diets (Wakiaga, 2022). When it comes to women pastoralists representation in political or public sphere, Furusa, Furusa (2014), few pastoralist women have been successful in running for an open parliamentary seat in eastern Africa and the Horn of Africa due to their struggles to compete with men in the political sphere. Both Tanzania and Uganda can boast a 30% participation of women in parliament due to affirmative action and quotas (Adegbite et al. (2023)) Yet, the real number of women who were directly chosen by voters is far lower in both circumstances. In contrast, in Ethiopia and Kenya, where no system of reservations has been instituted, overall representation is at 22% and just 9%, respectively (Kipuri & Ridgewell, 2008). Tanzania has a representation rate of only 5% (Adegbite et al. (2023)). As a result, issues with political representation in general will frequently take precedence over issues with women’s involvement. From this point of view, prejudice towards pastoralist women’s roles continues to be a substantial impediment to female involvement. Even when a woman candidate is running, women regularly advocate for and cast a majority of the votes for male candidates to win political office (Yoon, 2001).

Women’s contribution to pastoralism: social and economic roles

Like in other rural-based civilizations, women in pastoralist households oversee providing food for their family members, whether by gathering and cooking food from their household’s subsistence efforts or by making purchases with money obtained through the rural economy (Kore, 2019). The daily milking of animals and the acquisition of additional items for domestic uses from nearby stores and trade facilities are often the responsibilities of women among African pastoralists. In addition, a few pastoral women make money by selling milk, butter, or hides to their non-pastoral neighbors, although males nearly exclusively control the bigger revenues from the sale of butchered meat or cattle (Kore, 2019). Women in pastoralist communities that live close to towns may make extra money by selling excess milk to non-milking urban populations. Typically, women utilize the money they get from selling these livestock products to buy various kinds of food, including grains, tea, and sugar, which are then used to feed the household group. As a result, there is a significant link between women’s income and household members nutritional status, especially children. This association may have a greater impact on children’s health than men’s income does (Fratkin, 2019). Some jobs, like as milking a camel, were traditionally performed by boys and men and appeared to be relaxing. However, this is deemed discriminatory since the camel is considered sacred among some African communities and a woman is not permitted access to it. As a result, gender norms within these communities have a detrimental effect on the empowerment of women (Onyima, 2019).

Women’s contribution to pastoralism: decision making roles

There has been much of the labor for the different livestock-related duties is provided by women, however they may or may not oversee decision-making, particularly in relation to the disposal of animals and their products. Like this, women may participate in production but may or may not own the tools of production, such as land and cattle (Alarcon et al., 2014). Although the labor contribution of women to the domestic workforce in the livestock business has risen, there has not been a corresponding improvement in their capacity for making decisions and system of traditional labor division in agriculture also, most of the time men typically herded, cleared land for new gardens, constructed granaries and dwellings, went hunting, and served in the military. Contrastingly, women were responsible for things like food preparation and cooking, fetching water and firewood, milking cows and goats, field work, planting, harvesting, threshing, cutting, and carrying home thatch, and childcare (OGOL, 2020). Though there are certain factors for limited participation of women, in many African cultures have a strong tradition of male domination and female submission, which has led to an imbalanced power structure between men and women. As said by an earlier study (Aistleitner, Kapeller, & Kronberger, 2023), Women’s engagement in pastoralism is impacted by the commonly characterized as patriarchal gender dynamics among pastoralists. They also contend that the dominance of males over women in pastoralist communities is not a feature of pastoralism as a mode of production or an ideology, but rather the outcome of a unique constellation of interactions between ideas and practices across a particular period, Women who work as pastoralists start to be seen as men’s assets and property (Anbacha & Kjosavik, 2019).

The research was carried out in the Somali region’s Shinile area. Shinile District is one of Shinile Zone’s six districts and is situated in the zone’s core. The Zone is situated in the far north of Somalia, sandwiched between Dire Dawa to the west, Afar Region to the north, and Djibouti to the east. Shinile district is 517 km east of Addis Abeba and around 15 kilometers from Dire-Dawa. The area was particularly selected because it is one of the districts which is heavily dependent on pastoralism and livestock for their survival.

A qualitative method has been used to exploring the role of pastoralism in enhancing food security and the role of women in pastoral activities in this area. In fact, the qualitative methodology is an approach to gather and analyze data that aims to provide an in-depth understanding of a specific topic or phenomenon(Endris Ahmed & Ahmed Bihi, 2019). Data have been gathered by the interviewers via observation, interviews, and focus group discussions to put evidence on the participants’ experiences, opinions, and attitudes (Maxwell, 2012).

The study used purposive sampling, which is a non-probability sampling technique that involves selecting participants based on specific characteristics or criteria. Purposive sampling is particularly useful in qualitative research, where the researcher is interested in exploring specific experiences and perspectives. The purposive sampling technique enables the researcher to select participants who have the most relevant experiences and perspectives related to the research questions (Hensen et al., 2021). However, a potential limitation of purposive sampling is the risk of selection bias, where the researcher may select participants who confirmed their preconceived ideas. To minimize this risk, the study used multiple data collection methods and involve participants with different backgrounds and experiences (Campbell et al., 2020). Therefore, the current investigation employed purposive sampling to select participants who are involved in pastoral activities.

Considering the need of using multiple data collection methods the study employed two primary qualitative data collection methods: in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. In contrast, secondary data were acquired through reading numerous works of literature on the subject. Books, journals, and other types of “gray literature” served as the sources for secondary data.

According to Ismael (2012) a focus group has been used by the interviewers to collect information and insights on a certain subject or problem from a group of people who have comparable features or experiences.

In particular a focus group interview is a useful research method for exploring complex issues and understanding the perspectives of individuals who are directly impacted by a particular topic, such as demonstrated in the literature on pastoralism (Tilahun et al., 2016; Bostedt et al., 2023).

According to Thompson Burdine, Thorne, and Sandhu (2021) ndividual interviews have been implemented to collect detailed information and insights from participants directly involved in pastoral activities about their experiences, opinions and beliefs. In-depth interviews are useful in exploring complex issues and providing detailed insights into the experiences and perspectives of individual participants as in this case (Deterding and Waters, 2021).

A sample size of 250 participants was carefully chosen, representing a varied range of persons with expertise in pastoral activities and food security. Among them twenty-five men and twenty-five women were employed to gather data for the research via interviews and focus group discussions. The demographic structure of the respondents is indicated in the Table 1.

The initial technique of data collecting was focus group discussion (FGD). A total of 20 focus groups with ten members each were organised, and ten focus group interviews were done. In other words, ten focused group interviews were held in twenty separate groups, each one with ten men and ten women. These focus group talks were helpful in developing group interaction, enabling members to explore and clarify their points of view in ways that would be more difficult in other kinds of data collecting. The conversations were designed to elicit participants opinions and sentiments regarding pastoralism, the role of women in these activities, and the implications on food security. Individual interviews were also an important approach employed in this investigation.

Fifty individual interviews were conducted, allowing respondents to express their experiences, opinions, and ideas without the impact of a group environment. They were held separately to enable women to speak freely.

The one-on-one interviews aided in gaining a better knowledge of the intricacies and subtleties associated with the study goals.

Both the focus group discussions and the individual interviews were prepared with open-ended questions to encourage participants to respond freely. This contributed to the data being rich, thorough, and representative of the participants experiences. Both approaches of data were then thematically analyzed, enabling the development of patterns and themes that gave useful insights into the significance of pastoralism on food security and the involvement of women in pastoral activities.

Interviews were conducted starting with an introduction and an explanation of the purpose of the study.

Observation during interviews with interviewees is an important part of the research process because it allows the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the experiences and perspectives of those involved in pastoral activities, as well as identify themes and patterns that may not be captured by other research methods. Observation during interviews with respondents is an important part of the study subject of investigating the impact of pastoralism in improving food security and the involvement of women in pastoral activities in Ethiopia’s Somali region. During the discussions, the interviewer examined the participants nonverbal signs, body language, and expressions, which gave crucial insights into their experiences and opinion. These observations were utilised to highlight critical areas of emphasis for future study as well as to construct research questions that represent the respondent’s experiences and viewpoints.

The study employed probes and follow-up questions to clarify and deepen the responses. Focus groups and interviews were recorded with the participant’s permission using an audio recorder or written notes. The participants’ privacy and confidentiality were protected by de-identifying the data and securely storing it. The results were reported in a clear and succinct way, with excerpts and examples from the transcripts used to highlight the themes and patterns discovered. The transcripts were analyzed using qualitative data analysis to discover common themes and patterns in the replies of the participants.

In particular content analysis were employed to examine the interpretations and implications of the information from the focus group and interview discussions.

According to Bengtsson (2016) the purpose of content analysis is to organize and elicit meaning from the data collected and to draw realistic conclusions from it.

The characteristics of interview respondents would be chosen to capture a diverse range of experiences and perspectives related to pastoralism and food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia, with a particular emphasis on the role of women in these activities.

The selection criteria were included factors such as age, gender, education, marital status, level of involvement in pastoral activities, and experience with climate change, land degradation, and conflicts over resources. The participants were recruited through local contacts and community leaders.

Participants in FGDs with women vary in age from 22 to 60, and all of them have at least two kids. All of the male participants are married and range in age from 25 to 60. Accordingly, 70% of all respondents fall within the active age group of 30 to 45, as this age group comprises the majority of individuals actively engaged in all productive and reproductive activities to support the household. However, the remaining 30% are between the ages of 55 and 65. Regarding marital status, all of the interviewees and participants in the focus group discussion were married. On the other hand, 60% of all interviewees adhere to large families with four to eight members. The level of respondents’ literacy is another criterion by which approximately 10% of respondents have completed only primary school. In addition, 10% of the respondents have some primary school education. Only 30% of the remaining 80 percent of respondents can read and write, while 50% are illiterate. Regarding educational attainment, women are more disadvantaged. Only twenty percent of the women who responded can read and write. There are over four times as many uneducated women as uneducated males.

The data gathered were analyzed by identifying the themes emerged from the responses. The thematic analysis actually provides an in-depth knowledge and can convey the richness and complexity of the experiences of individuals directly involved in pastoral activities through qualitative data analysis. The following themes and subthemes emerged from the responses.

The relationship between pastoralism and food security in the region

Majority of the interviewees considered livestock to be an important aspect of food security in the region. According to one herder, “Our animals are our source of food and income. Without them, we would have nothing.” Women who are herders also emphasize the importance of livestock to provide food and income for their families. They point out that they play a significant role in the care and management of livestock, which contributes to the overall food security of their communities. However, many respondents also pointed to food insecurity as a persistent problem in the region. According to a government official, “Climate change, drought and conflict have all contributed to food insecurity in Somalia.” Many pastoralists also point to the challenges they face in accessing markets for their livestock and basic services such as health care and education. These challenges exacerbate food insecurity in the region. Some interviewees also noted that traditional livestock farming practices may need to adapt to changing conditions to ensure food security in the region. “We need to find ways to help pastoralists diversify their income and find alternative livelihoods to reduce their vulnerability to climate shocks and other challenges,” said a government official. Women working in pastoralism also highlighted the need for education and training programmes, to improve their skills in livestock farming and other activities, thereby increasing their income and food security. A focus discussion on the relationship between livestock and food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia generated several key themes related to the challenges and opportunities for enhancing food security in the region. However, focus group discussion participants emphasized the importance of understanding local contexts and involving local communities in the development of policies and interventions related to food security. They note that many traditional practices associated with livestock have evolved over time to adapt to changing conditions and that it is important to build on these practices to develop strategies to enhance food security in the region. Another major issue that emerged from the focus group discussions was the importance of building resilience in pastoral communities. Participants noted that resilience is not only about building capacity to cope with shocks and stresses, but also about improving adaptive capacity and fostering innovation. This requires a multifaceted approach, including improving market access and services, promoting alternative livelihoods, and investing in education and training. Participants also highlighted the importance of addressing gender inequalities in pastoral areas and ensuring women have equal access to resources and opportunities to contribute to food security in the region. Overall, the discussion highlighted the need for a holistic and collaborative approach to enhancing food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia, acknowledging the vital role of livestock in providing food and income to many communities in the region, while addressing challenges and changing environmental and social conditions. opportunities brought about by conditions.

Climate Change and its impact on pastoralism and food security in the region

During the interviews, several respondents shared their views on the impact of climate change on the livestock sector and food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia, one of the subthemes that emerged from the data analysis. A focus group discussion revealed that climate change is causing drought and other environmental challenges that have had a profound impact on pastoral communities and their ability to sustain traditional livelihoods. Many interviewees noted a decrease in livestock productivity and an increase in mortality due to changing environmental conditions. Some respondents also noted that the impact of climate change on the region’s livestock sector and food security is exacerbated by conflict and other factors such as restricted access to markets and services. During a group discussion some of interviewees noted that conflict has displaced pastoralist communities, making it difficult for them to access pastures and water. But some of the interviewees argued that limited access to markets and services also makes it difficult for pastoralists to sell their produce and obtain the resources they need to keep their livestock. While responding during interview some respondents expressed optimism about the potential for adaptation measures to increase the resilience of pastoral communities to climate change. They note that there is growing awareness of the need for alternative livelihoods and the development of drought-resistant crops, and that many pastoral areas are exploring new ways of diversifying income and adapting to changing environmental conditions. Respondents also highlighted the importance of government policies and interventions in supporting these efforts and promoting food security in the region.

The importance of traditional knowledge in enhancing food security in pastoral communities

During the interviews, several respondents shared their views on the importance of traditional knowledge in enhancing food security in pastoral areas, one of the subthemes that emerged from the data analysis. Respondents emphasized that traditional knowledge is a valuable resource that can help promote sustainable livelihoods and build resilience to environmental challenges. They noted that traditional knowledge is rooted in a deep understanding of the local environment and its resources and is developed over generations of experience. Respondents also shared that traditional knowledge is intricately linked to pastoral practices and plays a vital role in ensuring food security in pastoral areas. For example, traditional knowledge about animal husbandry and grazing methods contributes to the health and productivity of livestock, which in turn contributes to food and income for pastoralists. Likewise, traditional knowledge about the use of wild plants and other natural resources can help supplement pastoralists diets and provide additional sources of income. Despite the importance of traditional knowledge in enhancing food security in pastoral areas, respondents noted that it is often overlooked or underestimated in development planning and decision-making. They emphasized the need for policies and interventions that recognize the value of traditional knowledge and work to promote its integration into development strategies.

Conflict in pastoral communities food Security and livelihoods

The study of the interviews, the group discussions, and the interviewer’s observations provide important insights into how violence affects the food security and livelihoods of pastoral communities in Ethiopia’s Somali and especially shinile area. Majority of interviewees stated that, conflict is a fundamental problem for pastoral communities in the area. Conflict hinders pastoral group’s ability to move around, which results in the loss of grazing pasture and water supplies. Food shortages and decreased revenue for pastoral communities are possible outcomes of this, which may have a considerable effect on cattle output. Conflict, however, may restrict women’s movement, making it harder for them to get to water supplies and grazing areas. Their ability to make a living and access to food may be significantly impacted by this. The interviewer’s observations also highlighted how war affects the livelihoods and food security of pastoral people. The findings demonstrated that violence might cause pastoral communities to be displaced, resulting in the loss of assets and cattle. Conflict may also prevent people from accessing markets and other services, which makes it difficult for pastoral communities to sell their animals and have access to basic amenities.

The role of women in pastoral activities and its impact on food security in the region

A theme that emerged from the discussions and interviews was the importance of recognizing the diversity of women’s roles and experiences in pastoral communities. Women’s roles in pastoralism vary according to factors such as age, marital status and family composition, and these differences must be considered when designing policies and interventions aimed at promoting gender equality and enhancing food security in the region. Discussions highlighted that there is the need for policies and interventions to facilitate women’s access to resources such as credit, extension services and markets. Many women in pastoral areas face significant barriers to accessing these resources, limiting their ability to fully participate in pastoral activities and contribute to food security in the region. Policies and interventions that promote gender equality and address these barriers are therefore critical to enhancing food security in pastoral areas. Discussions and interviews highlighted the importance of policies and interventions that promote gender equality and women’s empowerment to enhance food security in the region. Another theme that emerged from the focus discussion was the importance of engaging men in promoting gender equity and women’s empowerment in pastoral communities. Men have a critical role to play in challenging gender norms and promoting gender equity, both within the household and within the wider community. The analysis suggests that policies and interventions that engage men in promoting gender equity and women’s empowerment are likely to be more effective in promoting lasting change.

Women’s empowerment and access to resources

During the interviews, several interviewees shared their views on the importance of women’s empowerment and access to resources to promote gender equality and enhance food security in the region. Many interviewees noted that women’s empowerment is critical to promoting sustainable livelihoods and increasing the resilience of pastoral communities to environmental challenges. They highlighted the need for policies and interventions to empower women and facilitate their access to resources such as credit, training and extension services. However, interviewees and some government officials also noted that there are significant challenges in promoting women’s empowerment and access to resources in pastoral communities. These challenges include cultural norms and practices that limit women’s mobility and decision-making power, as well as limited educational, healthcare and economic opportunities. Respondents highlighted the need for policies and interventions to address these challenges and promote gender equality in pastoral communities. Some interviewees emphasized the importance of involving women in the design and implementation of policies and interventions that affect their lives and livelihoods. They noted that women have a deep understanding of the local environment and its resources and that their participation is critical to ensuring the success and sustainability of development initiatives.

Men in supporting women’s participation

During the interviews, several men expressed their support for women’s participation in pastoral activities and their desire to promote gender equity in the region. They noted the critical role that women play in ensuring food security and the need for policies and interventions that empower women and promote their participation in pastoral activities. They also acknowledged the structural barriers that limit women’s access to resources and opportunities and expressed their willingness to collaborate with women to address these challenges. The men’s perspectives were largely consistent with those of the women interviewed, highlighting the importance of men’s engagement and support in promoting gender equity and women’s empowerment. Several men noted that challenging gender norms and promoting gender equity is not only the responsibility of women, but of men as well. They emphasized the need for men to recognize the value of women’s contributions and to support their participation in pastoral activities. However, there is still a long way to go in terms of addressing the structural barriers that limit women’s access to resources and opportunities, and in promoting men’s engagement and support in promoting gender equity and women’s empowerment.

The effectiveness of government policies and interventions in supporting pastoral communities and improving food security

In interviews with members of pastoral communities, and government officials, some comments were made on the effectiveness of government policies and interventions aimed at improving food security in their communities. Several respondents expressed their appreciation for the various initiatives and support programs that they believe contribute to reducing food insecurity and improving their standard of living. For example, some mentioned providing animal vaccines, building water reservoirs, and distributing improved seed varieties, which allowed them to grow more crops and keep livestock healthy. However, some respondents complained that they did not receive enough support from the government, especially in terms of market access and credit facilitation. During the focus group discussion, participants from governmental organizations shared their experiences and perspectives on government efforts to support pastoral areas. Some participants highlighted challenges facing communities, such as the effects of climate change, recurring droughts, and conflict over pastures. They also discussed various government interventions to address these challenges, such as the construction of boreholes, the provision of animal feed and the establishment of community organisations. Overall, participants agreed that government interventions have had a positive impact, but more needs to be done to address the underlying issues affecting pastoral communities. In conclusion, the effectiveness of government policies and interventions in supporting pastoral areas and improving food security is a complex issue that requires an integrated approach. Respondent comments, focus group discussions, and interviewer observations all provided valuable insights into the impact of government programs on the ground. While some communities have benefited greatly from government support, more needs to be done to address underlying challenges facing pastoral areas, such as climate change and land tenure issues. In addition, efforts should be made to ensure that government interventions are sustainable, participatory and responsive to community needs.

The impact of climate change on pastoralism and food security in the region

In interviews with members of pastoralist communities, and governmental official majority of interviewees expressed concern about the impact of climate change on livestock and food security in their regions. Some interviewees noted that changing weather patterns, including droughts, floods, and unpredictable rainfall, had negatively impacted their livelihoods. Meanwhile the interviewer observed that the loss of pastures resulted in less productive livestock, which had to travel long distances to find pasture and water for their animals. As a result, some respondents lost large numbers of livestock, which adversely affected their food security. Participants noted that changing weather patterns have led to reduced agricultural productivity, which has had a negative impact on food availability and access. They also point to increased conflict over natural resources such as pastures and water due to climate change, further exacerbating food security. Participants called for more action to address the root causes of climate change and build resilience of pastoral communities to its impacts. Interviewers noted that some communities have adapted to changing weather patterns by adopting new technologies and practices, such as water harvesting and conservation techniques. However, interviewers also observed that some communities were still struggling to cope with the impacts of climate change, especially those with limited access to supports and services in more remote areas.

The challenges faced by pastoralists in the region in terms of food security and their coping mechanisms

In interviews with members of pastoral communities, many respondents highlighted the challenges they face with regard to food security. Several interviewees mentioned that drought and land degradation have resulted in reduced rangelands, negatively impacting their livestock productivity. This in turn leads to reduced income and makes it difficult for them to obtain food. Some interviewees also mentioned limited access to markets, credit facilities and infrastructure, which limit their ability to diversify their income sources and obtain food. During the focus group discussion, participants discussed the challenges faced by pastoralists in the region with regard to food security and their coping mechanisms. Participants mentioned that lack of access to water and pastures is a major challenge, especially during the dry season. They also point out that pastoral areas are prone to livestock diseases, which can kill entire herds and threaten food security. Despite these challenges, participants mentioned that pastoralists have developed coping mechanisms such as diversification of herds, marketing of non-livestock products and seasonal migration to areas with better grazing conditions. While some communities have developed innovative approaches to address the food security challenges, they face, more needs to be done to support these communities in building their capacity to meet the challenges they face. An integrated approach is needed to address the root causes of food insecurity, such as climate change and land degradation, to improve food security in pastoral areas of the region.

The role of women in pastoralism is critical to the viability and sustainability of the sector and to enhancing food security in the region. Women in pastoral areas of the region play important roles in livestock production, including milking, feeding, and drinking, processing and marketing livestock products, and managing households. The relationship between livestock and food security in Ethiopia’s Somali region, shinile is critical. Livestock farming, the practice of raising livestock such as cattle, sheep, and goats, is the main livelihood strategy for most people in the region. Livestock production provides an important source of food and income for pastoralists and their families, especially during times of drought and food scarcity. Findings show a positive relationship between livestock and food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia. According to a study by Bogale and Erena (2022), the livestock sector contributes more than 80% of household income in the Somali region of Ethiopia. However, the current study found that milk, meat, and blood were the main sources of animal protein and other essential nutrients for pastoralists in the region. Livestock also serve as a source of savings and insurance, providing pastoralists with a safety net in times of hardship. The analysis shows that the livestock sector plays a vital role in enhancing food security in the Somali region by providing access to nutritious food and income. Benti, Biru, and Tessema (2022) found that pastoralists rely heavily on livestock products to meet their nutritional needs. The study also found that the relationship between livestock and food security in Somalia is also affected by challenges such as climate change, limited market access and gender inequality. Reducing gender inequalities implies benefits not only for women but also for all vulnerable persons and group (Asaduzaman et al., 2015).

Climate change is causing droughts and floods to become more frequent and severe, with major impacts on livestock productivity, food availability and food security in the region. A study by Osman et al. (2018) found that sustainable natural resource management, such as water harvesting and rotational grazing, can help mitigate the impacts of climate change in pastoral areas and enhance their food security. Current research suggests that limited market access and market information also pose challenges to pastoralists’ income and food security. A study found that pastoralists face significant challenges in accessing markets due to poor infrastructure and insufficient market information. The study highlights the need for interventions to promote better market access and market information for pastoral communities.Therefore, the need for interventions to promote better market access and market information for pastoral communities is vital. Another finding of the study argues that gender inequalities in access to resources and decision-making are also significant barriers to women’s pastoral participation, limiting their contribution to food security. The analysis also shows that women’s participation in decision-making processes in pastoral communities is critical for sustainable pastoral resource management and better outcomes for the community as a whole. A study by Flintan (2021) fund that women’s participation in decision-making processes in pastoral communities can lead to more equitable resource management and better outcomes for pastoral communities as a whole. Also, the conflicts can lead to displacement of pastoral areas, loss of livestock and assets, and limited access to markets and basic services, the study found. These challenges can have major impacts on food security and livelihoods in pastoral areas. Previous research has also explored the impact of conflict on food security and livelihoods in pastoral areas (Nagabhatla, Cassidy-Neumiller, Francine and Maatta, 2021). This can lead to reduced livestock productivity and food insecurity in pastoral areas. The study confirmed that women and children are particularly vulnerable to the impact of conflict on food security and livelihoods in pastoralist communities (Scheffran, Link, & Schilling, 2019). Pastoralists traditional knowledge of plant species and their uses, soil conservation techniques and water harvesting strategies helps them adapt to changing environments and maintain their livelihoods, the study found. A study by Bol, Van Niekerk (2023) found that traditional knowledge of pastoralists is critical to their survival and resilience, especially during times of drought and food scarcity. A study by Robbins Schug et al. (2023) found that traditional knowledge, including indigenous technologies and practices, is critical for sustainable pastoral resource management and improving food security in the region. Addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort by all stakeholders to recognize and support the value of traditional knowledge that enhances pastoral food security. Policies and interventions that promote sustainable land use practices, protect traditional pastoral lands, and support the transmission of traditional knowledge from older to younger generations can help preserve the traditional knowledge of pastoral communities and promote sustainable pastoralism. At the same time, current research also highlights the need for policies and interventions that recognize and support the importance of traditional knowledge in enhancing food security in pastoral areas. According with previous studies (Silva et al., 2022; Kyotos et al., 2022) the findings highlight that women’s role in pastoralism is critical to the survival and sustainability of the region’s pastoralism and has a major impact on food security and it emphasizes the importance of involving women in decision-making processes at the community level to ensure their needs and priorities are considered.Previous studies have shown that male participation in support of female participation in pastoral activities is critical for strengthening gender equality, increasing productivity and promoting sustainable livestock husbandry. A study by Olenje (2022) found that male participation supporting female participation in pastoral activities leads to better outcomes for both men and women. Therefore, current research highlights the need for gender-responsive interventions, such as training men in gender-sensitive practices and policies, involving men in decision-making processes, and promoting women’s participation in community-based organizations and cooperatives. The findings of the study suggest that addressing the challenges of limiting women’s participation in livestock will require the promotion of gender-sensitive policies that recognize and support women’s roles in the livestock sector. Policies that provide women with secure land tenure, access to credit and finance, education and training opportunities can help increase their productivity and income. Bogale and Erena (2022), concluded that pastoralists in the region have developed coping mechanisms, such as mobility, diversification of livelihoods and use of traditional knowledge, to adapt to a changing climate and protect their livestock from drought and flooding. These coping mechanisms are critical to their survival and resilience in the face of climate change. Addressing these challenges requires the combined efforts of all stakeholders to promote sustainable land use practices, better market access, and gender-sensitive policies that recognize and support the role of women in the livestock sector. According to Machan et al., (2022) the pastoralists in the region face significant challenges in accessing markets due to poor infrastructure, insufficient market information, and limited value added to livestock products. These challenges limit their income and affect their ability to obtain food and other basic resources. Promoting climate resilient livelihood strategies such as diversified livelihoods, alternative energy sources and improved animal health can also help pastoralists meet the challenges of climate change and enhance their food security.

The findings of this study have several implications for policy makers, development practitioners and pastoral communities.

First, policymakers need to recognize and support the unique characteristics and needs of pastoral communities in their policies and interventions. This requires promoting gender-sensitive policies that recognize and support the role of women in the livestock sector and involve pastoral communities in decision-making processes. In addition, policies and interventions should promote sustainable livestock resource management and better market access to enhance food security and promote sustainable livestock in the region.

Second, development practitioners need to provide technical and financial support to pastoral areas to promote sustainable livestock and enhance food security. Development interventions should focus on promoting climate-resilient livelihood strategies, such as diversified livelihoods and alternative energy sources, and improving market access and value chains for livestock products.

Third, pastoral areas themselves play a key role in promoting sustainable pastoralism and enhancing food security in the region. The findings of this study highlight the importance of traditional knowledge, cultural practices and the unique characteristics of pastoral communities in promoting sustainable livestock husbandry and enhancing food security. Therefore, pastoral communities should be involved in decision-making processes and provided with training opportunities to increase their productivity and resilience.

The theoretical implications of the contribution could span several academic fields. In particular the paper could expand existing theories about gender roles, particularly in societies traditionally considered male-dominated such as the pastoral one. By focusing on the contribution of the women in pastoral activities, the study argues that women’s role is more complex and significant than typically acknowledged in mainstream literature.

Finally, the findings of the study have implications for the wider international community. Promoting sustainable livestock farming and enhancing food security in the Somali region of Ethiopia is critical to achieving global food security and sustainable development.

However, there were certain limitations to the study. The study’s focus on women’s roles in pastoralism may not adequately reflect the complexities of gender relations in the region. The study’s emphasis on women may not accurately reflect the distinct roles that men and women play in livestock farming and may oversimplify the complex social and economic factors that affect gender relations in the region. It may be limited by the context in which the research is conducted, and the specific region is characterized by a specific set of social, economic, and environmental conditions that may not be representative of other regions or countries. Despite these certain limitations, the results obtained have given useful indications for subsequent in-depth studies.

In particular the findings highlighted the need for further research to explore the links between sustainable livestock husbandry, traditional knowledge, and adaptation to climate change in pastoral communities.