Positive empowerment or freedom trap? Female companions’ voice attractiveness capitalization, gender roles, and gamer identity

With the rapid growth of the entertainment industry and the escalating demand for culturally enriched experiences, the economic and socio-cultural influence of the gaming sector has become increasingly prominent (Newzoo, 2024). A novel form of companion-assisted gaming service, known as ‘game companionship,’ has garnered significant global attention. In recent years, in China, this trend has not only emerged as a widespread consumer phenomenon but has also evolved into a regulated and flexible employment sector under national policy guidance (China National Radio CNR, 2024). It now boasts over five million game companions and more than ten million gamer consumers (China Daily, 2021), with a market size exceeding ten billion yuan (Guanyan Report Network GRN, 2024). These developments underscore the sector’s dual role as both a driver of economic innovation and a significant provider of employment within the gig economy. Unlike traditional forms of labor, game companionship emphasizes voice-based virtual interactions that blend emotional engagement with entertainment. The demand for feminized voices positions female companions as key figures, aligning with client expectations for social and emotional interaction (Höglander et al., 2019). The rapid expansion of the game companion industry has attracted many young women, drawn by the sector’s low entry barriers and flexible work opportunities. While this employment model aligns with their gaming skills and interests, it also places them within a precarious labor framework. Female game companions often face dual pressures: They must meet consumers’ personalized emotional and role-based needs while simultaneously adapting to the market’s sexualized expectations of service labor. Many adopt embodied vocal personas to enhance the emotional appeal of their services (Near, 2013), further reinforcing the commodification of gendered traits (Drenten et al., 2019). These dynamics prompt critical reflection on the intersection of sexualized capital, personal choice, and free-market economics. Although these concepts may appear neutral or empowering, they obscure this labor practice’s structural inequalities and moral ambiguities.

In this context, this study focuses on ‘voice attractiveness,’ exploring how these notions emerge at the intersection of neoliberal market expectations and the gaming of cultural dynamics. By examining the self-commodification of vocal sexualization, this study reveals how this phenomenon is shaped by both macro-level external market forces, such as power and financial needs, and micro-level internal psychological drivers, particularly the perception of “voice attractiveness as power.” Furthermore, this research identifies ‘nomadic voice’ as a core strategy female companions use to navigate the competing demands of technical competence and emotional labor, reflecting the complex interplay between identity contradictions, internal group divisions, and societal expectations. China’s game companion market, in particular, has immense development potential and has emerged as a significant reference point for global trends in the gaming and broader service industries. While the market provides young women with opportunities for economic growth and employment, it also underscores the troubling expansion of sexualized capital. This phenomenon highlights the need to examine how cultural tensions between empowerment and exploitation affect female workers’ cognition and psychological well-being. By addressing these complexities, this study offers a nuanced perspective on how gaming culture shapes labor practices and gender dynamics within contemporary service economies.

Seeing the person through their voice: gender roles in voice self-sexualization

With the rapid growth of the gaming industry and the rise of companionship apps, competition among platforms has intensified. However, as marginalized figures within the gaming world, female companions often face the perception that they are not ‘authentic gamers’ (Kelly et al., 2023; Paaßen et al., 2017). This perception leads to a gendered division of roles within the game companionship market: Men typically take on technical roles, such as coaching or ranking improvement, while women are relegated to roles centered on entertainment and emotional support (Zhao, 2024). As a result, if female game companions do not actively engage with players—mainly through their voices—their employment opportunities are significantly limited.

To expand their client base, female companions often fine-tune their voices, adopting crafted personas to stimulate players’ imaginations (Feinberg et al., 2008; Peng et al., 2021; Gfeller & Zittoun, 2021; Wu et al., 2023). The American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (2007) defines this behavior, where physical attractiveness is equated with sexual attractiveness, as “sexualization.” Drenten et al. (2019) conceptualize “sexualized labor” as comprising three key components: emotional labor, esthetic labor, and sexualization. To enhance emotional value and accentuate sexualized characteristics, female companions often modulate their voices, facilitating quick yet intimate connections with players (Puts et al., 2014). Pisanski et al. (2018) reported that vocal variations are a powerful medium for signaling attractiveness. In this context, a sweeter-toned voice, akin to sexual adornment and combined with exaggerated expressions and semantic cues, effectively conveys tenderness or care, emotionally compensating for the target.

Therefore, female game companions must engage in esthetic labor to sustain an embodied self through voice. One technique commonly employed is a vocal modulation method known as ‘Jia.’ This technique involves tightening the vocal cords to produce a higher-pitched, gentle, and sweet tone with a narrower pitch range (Chen & Chen, 2024). The result is a voice that aligns with youthful and feminine attributes, which game players highly value. This emphasis on femininity underscores that esthetic labor and self-sexualization operate as a unified mechanism. People associate attractive voices with appealing appearances (Feinberg et al., 2005; Hughes & Miller, 2016), and vocal quality significantly influences men’s judgments of women’s physical attractiveness (Groyecka et al., 2017).

Despite the diversity of global social and cultural factors, the use of gendered vocal cues to shape or reinforce specific vocal identities is widespread. In China, expressions of cute femininity integrate Taiwanese ‘Sajiao’ culture and social media influences, forming a stylized symbol in young women’s daily lives. As a result, the tonal range of Mandarin has come to represent ‘cute encoding’ (Gao & Forrest, 2023), an image that some female game companions aspire to replicate. In South Korea, phonetic variations linked to ‘aegyo’ culture allow women to use nasal tones to express cuteness, often to gain favor, maintain social harmony, or secure economic advantages (Crosby, 2023; Puzar & Hong, 2018). In California, certain women use trap-backing and compressed vowel spaces to create the Valley Girl style, associated with youthful, trendy, and materialistic lifestyles (Bucholtz et al., 2007; D’Onofrio, 2015). Research on the endangered Inuit language Kodiak Alutiiq has even identified similar rhythmic stylizations, such as higher pitches and broader pitch variation in softer female roles, where ‘sweet’ qualities signal social stances and positions (Fine, 2019).

These studies highlight why female game companions employ ‘Jia’ as a vocal performance technique to amplify their appeal. By emphasizing feminine traits through vocal stylization, they not only leverage self-charm but also, as Lakoff (1975) noted, expose the social and power limitations women face—transforming this practice into self-empowerment. Female game companions thus engage in vocal grooming to idealize and cater to specific bodily traits as part of their charm (Rajan-Rankin, 2017), further aligning with societal expectations, particularly male preferences. Establishing a vocal identity becomes crucial for legitimizing their roles within the gendered gaming culture. This process of vocal self-sexualization may illustrate how they navigate gender pressures while gaining power and pleasure in a gendered environment.

Under neoliberal culture: the identification and burden of sexual capitalization

In the post-pandemic era, China has intensified efforts to build a gig economy to address employment challenges and the tension between family caregiving and traditional work models (General Office of the State Council, 2020). Within this context, the game companion industry fosters flexible employment, driving the digital economy and aligning with neoliberal trends. Female game companions leverage emotional and communication skills to enter the traditionally male-dominated gaming industry, using creativity to earn income (Lu et al., 2023). However, the use of sexualized voice presentation and self-image enhancement reflects neoliberal feminist ideologies, where women view vocal attractiveness as ‘innate capital’ to exchange for economic gains (Schmitz, Blossfeld, 2013; Kaplan & Illouz, 2022). This aligns with the neoliberal commodification of freedom (Repo, 2020), enabling women to redefine their roles in sexualized labor through market logic. By framing women as agents of empowerment (Gill & Scharff, 2011), they resolve internal moral conflicts and embrace the financial rewards of sexualized labor.

As female game companions recognize that vocal charm can generate significant income—often without advanced gaming skills—they increasingly prioritize sexual attention through voice attractiveness, viewing it as a source of power and pleasure (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004). This belief aligns with psychological concepts such as “sexualized enjoyment” (Liss et al., 2011) and “sexual empowerment” (Erchull & Liss, 2013a). Sexualized enjoyment reflects women’s satisfaction from showcasing their sexual appeal, which is linked to confidence and body image (Barnett et al., 2018), while sexual empowerment emphasizes women’s agency in leveraging sexual attractiveness for power and resources (Calogero & Siegel, 2019).

Despite the growing body of research on the power dynamics of female game companions (Swords et al., 2021), existing studies primarily focus on domination and resistance, often neglecting the complex psychological factors at play (Yan et al., 2022; He, 2023; Zhao, 2024). By integrating women’s psychology with feminist economics, this research moves beyond merely discussing neoliberal feminist consciousness as a cultural context; it transforms it into a quantifiable psychological factor, enabling the observation of shifts in discourse and behavior. Neoliberal values shape women as active, autonomous subjects but simultaneously demand that they assume full responsibility for their success or failure (Brown, 2015). However, female workers often face male-dominated environments, sexual harassment, and gendered labor divisions, which render them vulnerable to commodification as cheap labor (English & Brown, 2023). The liberal discourse of self-responsibility overlooks the unequal power dynamics between capitalists and labor, as well as between men and women, perpetuating stratification and pushing women into low-value jobs (Eisenstein, 2015). Flexible industries exploit women’s bodies and minds (Van den Berg, Baum, 2023), redefining freedom and agency as voluntary self-objectification. Women, conforming to normative cultural expectations, continue to embody sensual, erotic femininity, thereby reinforcing patriarchal and capitalist structures (Budgeon, 2001; Chen, 2013).

While the game companion industry places women in low-wage, low-prestige jobs, thereby reinforcing the gender pay gap (Bai et al., 2023) and labor hierarchies (Duffy, 2016), female companions recognize that sexualized labor offers quicker financial returns compared to technical labor. This economic incentive drives young women to adopt neoliberal narratives of ‘empowerment through voice attractiveness,’ justifying their participation in sexualized labor. However, many are unaware of esthetic labor’s hidden demands on their bodies (Elias et al., 2017). Intimate relationships and workplaces remain spaces of power asymmetry, where women are more likely to face disrespect (Hay et al., 2019), and higher positions can exacerbate objectification, leading to psychological burdens (Gruenfeld et al., 2008). In conclusion, neoliberal culture fosters the gendered gig economy, where women can access sexual capital with few barriers, fueling their pursuit of self-fulfillment. This study, focusing on female game companions, uses women’s psychology to explore how perceptions of sexual attractiveness shape their engagement in sexualized labor. It also critically examines the consequences of neoliberal-driven game companionship work for female companions.

The current study

This study, situated within the contexts of gaming culture and neoliberalism, examines the role of female game companions in online games, focusing specifically on the working dynamics of those who leverage voice attractiveness in their work. The study addresses two primary research questions and posits five research hypotheses, facilitating a comprehensive and critical discussion (Fig. 1).

Research questions, hypotheses, and methodology of the current study.

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RQ1: What specific concepts related to voice attractiveness do female game companions develop through their work, and how do these concepts influence their engagement in sexualized labor?

RQ2: How do female gaming companions navigate the dynamics of sexualized labor? What impact do gendered norms in gaming culture and neoliberal market ideologies have on this process?

To address these questions, this study develops scales for “voice attractiveness as power” and “sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness,” hypothesizing that these internal, voice-related concepts significantly influence sexualized behaviors (Hypothesis 1). Additionally, the study incorporates perceived power and financial needs as external environmental factors into the analytical pathway, aiming to capture as accurately as possible the influence of these concepts on the behaviors of game companions. We hypothesize that lower perceived power directly increases sexualization behaviors (Hypothesis 2) and further posit that perceived power may also serve as a mediator between voice attractiveness-related concepts and sexualization behaviors (Hypothesis 3). Financial needs are predicted to influence sexualization behaviors directly (Hypothesis 4). Finally, we propose that mediation or chaining effects may exist among perceived power, financial needs, voice attractiveness-related concepts, and sexualization behaviors (Hypothesis 5). Accordingly, we seek to construct a model that connects all potential influencing factors, providing a comprehensive approach to explaining how female gaming companions engage in voice sexualization behaviors. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews with 25 participants explored how individuals strategically leverage voice attractiveness in their labor practices while situating these strategies within the broader contexts of gaming culture and neoliberal ideologies. This dual focus examines both the personal agency of female game companions and the broader societal implications of sexualized labor in the commodification of voice attractiveness.

Method

Participants and procedure

Before data collection, the study received approval from the author’s institutional ethical review board. Female gaming companions were recruited via social media for a questionnaire survey. The study specified three criteria for participation. First, participants must identify as female and possess biological characteristics typically associated with cisgender females. This criterion accurately assessed voice attributes linked to physiological factors relevant to cisgender females. Second, participants must currently work as gaming companions and serve male players. Third, they must communicate via a microphone during gaming sessions. To enhance data authenticity, participants underwent identity verification, resulting in an effective completion rate of 91.94%. Initially, 335 individuals participated, but 27 were excluded due to suspicious responses, leaving 308 valid surveys for analysis. Notably, the study welcomed the participation of gender-diverse women. However, transgender individuals may use voice-modifying technology or face biases due to perceived inconsistencies in gender roles, potentially leading to their exclusion by game companion organizations and players. Unfortunately, this population was not represented in the present study.

In the final valid sample, 104 participants aged 15–18, 191 aged 18–25, and 13 aged over 25, with no participants over 30. In terms of education level, 34.0% reported having a high school diploma (N = 105), 17.5% had an associate degree (N = 54), 44.1% had a bachelor’s degree (N = 136), and 4.2% had a graduate degree or higher (N = 13). Regarding current relationship status, 70.1% reported being single (N = 216), whereas 29.8% reported being in a relationship/marriage (N = 92). In terms of the economic level of their cities, the participants lived primarily in developed cities in China (41.8%, N = 129), followed by developing cities (30.5%, N = 94), cities in urgent need of development (22.0%, N = 68), and rural areas (5.5%, N = 17). Moreover, 273 participants reported gaming companionship as a part-time job, whereas 35 reported it as full-time. Additionally, 180 participants reported that most of their clients were male, whereas 128 reported primarily female clients.

Measures

Self-empowerment of voice attractiveness

Previously, Erchull and Liss (2013a) developed the sex is power scale (SIPS) to operationalize the subjective perception that females can wield power through sex. Precisely, the SIPS measures females’ tendency to gain power through the control or manipulation of men using sexuality, with the original scale comprising two dimensions: Specifically, the SIPS measures females’ tendency to gain power through the control or manipulation of men using sexuality, with the original scale comprising two dimensions: the Self subscale (S-SIPS) and the Women in General subscale (W-SIPS). The present study hopes to adopt a new self-empowerment of voice attractiveness scale accordingly. However, the current survey intended to emphasize the general belief that sex attractiveness brings about self-empowerment and was not explicitly focused on power negotiation between males and females. Therefore, the current adaptation retains and modifies four items from the S-SIPS to better fit the context of the game companion service and to explore how female game companions perceive the power they obtain through voice attractiveness. These topics include the following: I can attract more players to choose me through my voice, and having a pleasant voice will give me an advantage in the game companionship industry; if a player is attracted to my voice, he may continue to choose me or refer to me or even fulfill my other requirements; I like to use my voice to project a persona or image, which can effectively help me carry out my companionship work; and my voice aids me in better utilizing my strengths and allows me to control the pace of the game. The participants rated their agreement for each statement on a 7-point response scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree).

The capitalization of voice attractiveness

Owing to the direct economic attributes of game companionship and to be more relevant to this research, this study adapts a measure of females’ attitudes toward capitalization of sex attractiveness developed by Teng et al. (2017), which scale was also adapted from the scale of Erchull and Liss (2013a). Our study modified the original questionnaire by replacing ‘sexual attractiveness’ with ‘voice attractiveness,’ creating a four-item scale to measure females’ tendency to utilize their voice attractiveness. The items include the following: females can use their voice attractiveness to earn money, with voice companionship being a prime example; voice attractiveness can serve as an advantage, and those who know how to use it can profit; voice attractiveness can be considered a commodity, with females being able to exchange their voice allure for money or other resources; females have a high degree of voice malleability, and voice attractiveness can serve as a form of capital, helping females achieve their goals. The participants agreed with the four statements on a scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree).

Sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness

This study adapts the Sexualized Enjoyment Scale initially developed by Liss et al. (2011), not by directly referencing the original work but by consulting Chinese-language research (Hou, 2019) that localized its content to the Chinese context. This localization has been tested and has demonstrated good reliability. Then, we modified the scale to assess the sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness among female game companions. This scale includes four items to evaluate how much females enjoy others’ attention to their voices. The specific items are as follows: I wish to appear more attractive, and during voice chats, this attractiveness might manifest through my voice; I feel delighted if my voice receives attention or compliments from players. My voice represents the image I wish to convey, and I am happy when players recognize this vocal image; I feel more confident when I have embellished or enhanced my voice. The scale employs a 7-point scoring method, where 1 = totally disagree and 7 = totally agree. Higher average scores on the four items indicate a greater sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness among female game companions.

Perceived power in game companionship

This study evaluated the impact of power on voice perceptions and self-sexualized behaviors among female game companions. Capturing the nuanced dynamics of perceived power quantitatively poses challenges due to the complexity of power relationships in digital labor. However, leveraging insights from prior research, which identifies power as a pivotal factor influencing behaviors in digital settings, we adopted a categorical approach for its analytical clarity and relevance to the gaming context. This method divides perceived power into three distinct levels reflecting typical power relations observed in the industry: equal power (scored as 2). The companion perceives the relationship with the player as balanced, signifying a partnership rather than a hierarchy. Subordinate power (scored as 1): The companion feels subordinate, prioritizing the player’s needs and emotions and reflecting a service-oriented stance. Superior power (scored as 3): Despite outwardly conforming to service norms, the companion internally maintains a stance of superiority or indifference toward the player’s demands. While simplifying the complex power flow, this categorical framework provides a structured way to assess how power perception influences companions’ behaviors and self-perception.

Financial needs assessment

This study aims to quantitatively assess the financial needs of female game companions in a manner that respects their privacy and reduces the potential discomfort associated with direct financial inquiries. The survey combines participants’ occupational status with their primary motivations for engaging in-game companionship to achieve this goal. It employs a less direct questioning style that aligns with ethical research practices. Financial expectations are categorized based on employment status, which serves as a proxy for financial needs: low financial needs (scored as 1). The participants identified as part-time companions whose primary interest was social interaction, viewing financial compensation as a secondary benefit. Moderate Financial Needs (scored as 2): Participants who engage in part-time companionship with a dual focus on enjoying the gaming experience and earning supplementary income. High Financial Needs (scored as 3): Participants who work as full-time companions, relying on this as their primary income source, indicate a greater financial dependency on their companion roles.

Control variables

This study incorporates several control variables, such as demographic factors (e.g., age, education level, ranging from junior high and below to graduate and above, including vocational and technical schools, junior college, undergraduate, and graduate studies) and geographic location (encompassing first- and second-tier developed cities, third- and fourth-tier developing cities, fifth-tier cities and below at the prefectural or county level, and rural areas). Additionally, the variables highly correlated with companion gaming experience include the type of employment (part-time/full-time) and duration of game companionship (less than three months, 3–6 months, approximately one year, approximately 1–2 years, and more than two years). Furthermore, as the reception of sexual attention from different genders may lead to differences in conceptions and behaviors related to voice attractiveness (Shang & Liu, 2023), the gender of serviced players (predominantly male/female) is also included as a control variable.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis

This study explores how female game companions perceive “voice attractiveness as power,” investigating its role as a source of personal and economic power. The study incorporates two dimensions: self-empowerment and capitalization of voice attractiveness. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed via principal axis factoring with noblemen rotation on a sample subset. The results supported a two-factor structure, reflecting the hypothesized dimensions with good internal consistency, as evidenced by a Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of 0.868 and Bartlett’s test indicating sufficient sample adequacy. The factors explained 66.757% of the variance, with loadings between 0.694 and 0.862, confirming the scale’s reliability. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the total sample validated the model (χ²/df = 1.359, CFI = 0.978, NFI = 0.923, RMSEA = 0.063) via AMOS 26. The scale’s average score measures the extent to which voice attractiveness is leveraged as power, with a high alpha coefficient of 0.905, indicating robust measurement reliability. A separate scale for sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness yielded a KMO of 0.827. EFA revealed a single factor explaining 71.733% of the variance with high loadings (0.829 to 0.865). CFA confirmed the model’s adequacy (χ²/df = 2.935, CFI = 0.975, NFI = 0.963, RMSEA = 0.075), and the average of the four items was used to measure the degree of sexualized enjoyment, with an alpha coefficient of 0.862 indicating reliability.

Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study variables

This study was designed with nonskippable items, eliminating the possibility of missing data. The means, standard deviations, and correlations among all the variables assessed are displayed in Table 1. Following the Shapiro‒Wilk test, all the data sets conformed to a normal distribution, which supported Pearson correlation analysis. Self-sexualization behaviors related to voice were significantly positively correlated with self-empowerment of voice attractiveness, capitalization of voice attractiveness, and sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness (p < 0.01).

Furthermore, the mean scores for all the variables were close to 5, indicating general agreement. For voice sexualization behavior, 24.3% of female game companions strongly agreed that they enhanced their voice to make it more attractive in their companion roles. Concerning the conceptions of voice, 26.4% of female game companions scored higher than 6, strongly agreeing that voice attractiveness could empower them personally; 31.0% strongly agreed that voice attractiveness could be used as a form of gender capital; 34.6% strongly agreed that demonstrating voice attractiveness could bring sexualized enjoyment.

In particular, a subset of the research sample (N = 104) included minors aged 16–18. These subgroup data were compared with those of adult female game companions. The results revealed that minors’ mean scores on the concept of “voice attractiveness as power” (N = 104, M = 4.72) were lower than those of adults (N = 204, M = 5.16). However, their acknowledgement of the sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness (M = 5.22) was slightly more significant than that of the adults (M = 5.11).

Influence of internal voice conceptions on self-sexualization behaviors (H1)

This study employed SPSS 26 to perform multiple linear regression analysis, as illustrated in Table 2. This model explores how different conceptions of voice attractiveness held by female game companions might affect their voice self-sexualization behaviors. Additionally, the study comprehensively considered various control variables when designing the survey. After analyzing variance, it was determined that demographic factors did not influence the study outcomes, except for the duration of game companionship and the primary client base, which did differ and were thus included in the regression model. The results indicated that female game companions who more strongly recognized the concept of “voice attractiveness as power” were more likely to engage in self-sexualization behaviors related to voice. In particular, recognizing voice attractiveness as personal capital (β = 0.299) had a more significant effect on self-sexualization behaviors than recognizing voice attractiveness as economic capital (β = 0.146). The more female game companions recognized the concept of sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness (β = 0.259), the more likely they were to engage in self-sexualization behaviors of voice. Among the control variables, longer durations in the role of a game companion (β = 0.120) were associated with more extraordinary voice embellishment. Although the gender of clients did not emerge as a significant explanatory variable in this model, it suggests that female game companions serving the same gender still feel that they are being empowered and experiencing sexualized enjoyment. Supplementary univariate linear regression revealed that, compared with those serving more female clients, those serving more male clients (β = 0.189, p = 0.001) were likely to exhibit greater voice sexualization.

Influence of external environment on sexualized behaviors

This study examines how connections among voice, perceived power, and financial needs moderate voice self-sexualization. Path analysis was conducted to assess directional relationships among variables and to test the indirect relationships among hypotheses. Figure 2 illustrates all the validated direct and indirect pathways in the research hypotheses. Descriptive statistics were initially performed to collect data on financial needs and perceived power. Regarding perceived power, 56.4% of females reported feeling less potent than the players they serve, 36.6% perceived themselves as equals to the players, and only 6.8% felt more powerful than the players did. Additionally, concerning financial needs, 28.5% of the female companions presented low financial needs with a social orientation, 60.0% presented moderate financial needs, and only 11.3% presented high financial needs, depending primarily on game companionship as their primary source of income.

Note: Fig. 2 displays all the validated direct or indirect pathways within the research hypotheses and reports the significant standardized effects and standard errors. ^**p < 0.01. ^***p < 0.001.

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Perceived power (H2–H3)

Perceived power negatively predicted voice self-sexualization (β = −0.302, unstandardized 95% CI = [−1.131, −0.539]). Both voice attractiveness as power (β = 0.037, 95% CI = [0.011, 0.070]) and sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness (β = 0.039, 95% CI = [0.011, 0.074]) were found to indirectly influence voice self-sexualization through perceived power indirectly, thus supporting H2 and H3.

Financial needs (H4)

Financial needs positively directly predicted voice self-sexualization (β = 0.172, unstandardized 95% CI = [0.173, 0.799]). H4 is supported.

Model linking voice perceptions and external environmental factors to sexualized behaviors (H5)

In the indirect pathways where financial needs predict voice sexualization, perceived power served as a significant mediator (β = 0.054, 95% CI = [0.019, 0.097]). However, when voice perceptions were considered mediators, only the mediator “voice attractiveness as power” was significant (β = 0.105, 95% CI = [0.044, 0.168]). In contrast, the mediator “sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness” was not supported (β = 0.047, 95% CI = [−0.017, 0.110]). Finally, the study identified a chain mediation linking the four variables: female companions’ financial needs impact perceived power indirectly through the concept of voice attractiveness as power, subsequently affecting voice self-sexualization (β = 0.005, 95% CI = [0.001, 0.013]). Table 3 shows all the direct and indirect paths tested in the study.

Study 1 investigates how young Chinese female game companions utilize voice attractiveness in their roles, developing a specialized psychological cognition scale tailored to their specific connections. The research differentiates between “voice attractiveness as power,” encompassing self-empowerment and capitalization, and the “sexualized enjoyment of voice attractiveness.” The findings revealed that greater recognition of these concepts was correlated with an increased sexualization of their voices. Notably, sexualized enjoyment slightly exceeded capitalization, which in turn was marginally greater than self-empowerment, suggesting that sexualized enjoyment often serves as the initial motivation for companion practices, with other aspects being refined through their work experience. Furthermore, the regression model showed that the gender of the primary player being serviced did not significantly impact perceptions related to voice attractiveness, indicating that traditional power dynamics between men and women do not shape these perceptions. Instead, this finding likely validates our view that female attitudes toward voice self-sexualization stem from a liberal feminist awareness (Barnett et al., 2018; Erchull & Liss, 2013b) aligned with their belief in personal autonomy and a strong focus on self-reflection (McRobbie, 2004), rather than from conventional views that cast females as passive.

The study also analyzed financial needs and perceived power as quantitative factors influencing voice self-sexualization among female game companions. Perceived power emerged as a critical mediator, suggesting that lower perceived power may lead companions to adapt their voice personas to align with player preferences, serving as a form of power compensation and meeting consumer demands. Furthermore, financial needs were found to predict voice self-sexualization directly. This model validated both parallel and sequential mediations involving the concepts of “voice attractiveness as power” and perceived power. These findings elucidate the motivations behind voice self-sexualization: as companions’ financial needs increase, so does their tendency to leverage voice attractiveness for self-empowerment and economic exchange. This dynamic becomes more pronounced in contexts of low self-perceived power, intensifying the self-sexualization of their voices. The perception of power among game companions is a dynamic process. The neoliberal emphasis on ‘freedom’ and ‘flexibility’ may be underpinned by lower self-esteem, reflecting the uncertainty and exploitative nature of companion work. In particular, under the pressures of market competition and financial incentives, self-identification through sexualization may lead to a deterioration in women’s mental health (Erchull & Liss, 2010, 2014; De Wilde et al., 2021).

Additionally, although the current study did not reveal significant differences in views on voice attractiveness among different demographic groups of women, this finding suggests the hidden nature of potential equilibrium. Specifically, the diversity in economic background, especially the urban-rural divide, has created a complex framework of gender concept influences within the female game companion community (Shui et al., 2021). Compared to female game companions from more privileged backgrounds, those from economically disadvantaged environments often have professional perceptions deeply marked by economic dependency. This leads them to view online game companionship as a profession reliant on financial support from male customers. In this context, the core value of gaming skills is marginalized, instead being seen as a nonessential tool subordinate to the companion role. This marginalization may prompt these women to adopt more stereotypical behavioral patterns to cater to male players’ preferences (Gui, 2019; Yu & Cui, 2019). Underlying this phenomenon are potential gender cognition differences between urban and rural female game companions. Those from rural backgrounds tend to have a diminished sensitivity to gender issues and greater tolerance for sexual harassment (He et al., 2024). This is reflected not only in their disregard for everyday verbal harassment, which they perceive as ‘jokes’ or routine interactions (Cordellieri et al., 2024), but also in their misunderstanding of the concept of sexual capitalization. They may perceive interpersonal objectification or verbal sexual harassment as an inevitable part of informal ‘capital exchange,’ unconsciously continuing to self-objectify during social interactions in their companion work to secure their survival without fully recognizing the potential emotional and psychological toll this process might entail (Hughes & Miller, 2016; Sanchez & Crocker, 2005).

This survey also collected valuable data from numerous underage companions. The results indicate that underage female companions experience slightly higher levels of sexualized enjoyment related to voice attractiveness than their adult counterparts do but score lower on the concept of “voice attractiveness as power.” Late adolescence, characterized by a heightened desire for attention, self-expression (Shabahang et al., 2023), and frequent tendencies toward self-objectification (Vandenbosch & Eggermont, 2013; Trekels et al., 2018), is a phase in which adolescent girls can utilize youthful voice qualities and quickly learn voice-modifying techniques to present themselves in virtual games. This helps adolescent girls address body dissatisfaction (Papageorgiou et al., 2022) and meet social needs. Shaping an attractive vocal image has also become one way for them to relieve stress and negative emotions (Scully et al., 2023). Moreover, for girls in this age group, who are under strict educational management and urgently seek external validation, using sexual attractiveness to serve men is unrecognized, making it difficult for them to experience a sense of empowerment. However, prolonged exposure to multiple sources of pressure–such as dynamic changes in social media platforms, societal expectations of gender roles, and various age-related factors (Yuan, 2020)–may unconsciously lead them to develop habits of conforming to patriarchal and capitalist values. This not only hinders their ability to construct positive and autonomous subjectivity (Mann, 2016) but also may exacerbate the trend of sexualized labor among younger individuals, posing a potential threat to the healthy development of adolescents. Therefore, while neoliberal feminist consciousness may, to some extent, reflect women’s pursuit of sexual subjectivity, in reality, it is fraught with internal contradictions and discursive traps, making it challenging to promote gender equality and female empowerment genuinely.

Method

Participants and procedure

Study 2 further explores the personas of female game companions, aiming to provide a deeper understanding of how they leverage voice attractiveness within the context of sexualized labor while also examining their psychological dynamics. Potential participants were recruited from individuals who voluntarily provided their contact information in the initial survey conducted for this study. The final sample consisted of 25 female game companions with varying durations of professional experience and diverse backgrounds (see Table 4). Semi-structured online in-depth interviews were employed to gather qualitative data. Before participation, all respondents were informed about the study’s objectives, methodology, and data-handling procedures. They were assured their statements would be recorded and transcribed, with personally identifiable information removed to ensure confidentiality.

NVIVO software was used to systematically organize and interpret the data, ensuring scientifically rigorous analysis. The analysis was grounded in two critical perspectives for open coding: identity challenges faced by women in gaming culture (Martey et al., 2013; Vermeulen et al., 2017; Kivijärvi & Katila, 2022) and gender discrimination (Austin, 2022; Yao et al., 2022). These perspectives formed the theoretical foundation for the design and coding of the interview data. Building on this framework, the theme of “voice nomadism” (De Certeau, 1988) emerged, which served as the basis for axial coding. This analysis phase focused on uncovering connections between participants’ experiences and the broader context of neoliberal cultural norms. Through this iterative process, four significant themes were identified: Women? Gamers? Nomadic identities of game companions; Leveraging benevolent sexism: Nomadic dynamics of vocal roles; Exclusivity of nomadic groups: Internal hierarchies of disdain; Paradox of agency: Duality of voice capital in-game companionship.

The in-depth interviews confirm the conclusions from the previous review, providing deeper insight into voice-based embodied practices and the dynamics within the framework of sexualized labor in the auditory domain. In the context of game companionship, female game companions’ esthetic labor and self-sexualization merge into a cohesive mechanism that intensifies emotional labor. Central to this process is vocal grooming, which enables self-sexualization to function as a signifier. Fictional personas and selective self-disclosure are necessary to meet male clients’ expectations. These strategies help companions develop a skill set that creates the illusion of ‘sounding authentic.’ As one participant noted, “Boys usually prefer high school girls, so I often lie about being in high school.” Infantilizing the character’s persona and modifying the voice to sound younger creates distinct auditory cues that allow male clients to derive gratification from interacting with a persona that aligns with sexualized tropes in both pornography and gaming culture.

In summary, female game companions are keenly aware of the emotional value they provide. They construct vocal personas that resonate with client expectations through dynamic esthetic labor and self-sexualization. As Roland Barthes (1977) argued, “A smooth, disembodied, transparent voice is not seductive; it fails to arouse desire, as seductiveness relies on the ‘grain of the voice’—the physicality of the signifier.” Companions strive to create tangible, embodied companionship that transcends digital boundaries. However, modifying the voice is only one part of their multifaceted strategies. This study further explores how neoliberal cultural perspectives shape how female game companions utilize their vocal identities. The findings show that their labor strategies align with De Certeau’s (1988) concept of “nomads,” using dynamic strategies to navigate systemic gaps and secure economic benefits in gender-segregated gaming environments.

Women? Gamers? Nomadic identities of game companions

Female game companions assert their gamer identities to gain a voice in male-dominated competitive gaming. Simultaneously, they challenge the stereotypical perceptions of gamers by conforming to societal expectations of femininity. This contradictory shift between identities becomes a nomadic strategy of dynamically adjusting roles, allowing female game companions to be accepted and needed, thereby establishing themselves as key players in companion labor. However, this strategic navigation of dual identities compels them to adopt accommodating and compliant behaviors, ultimately marginalizing them within gaming contexts.

Voice attractiveness is a tool for female game companions to secure bookings and a unique method for maintaining client relationships and protecting themselves. Within this context, sexualized labor is intricately intertwined with gaming culture. Previous game studies have indicated that the societal expectations of women are transposed into the gaming space, leading to the formation of standardized identities for female gamers (e.g., Austin, 2022; Martey et al., 2013; Fox & Tang, 2013). Shared community identities and performance expectations influence male gamers’ decisions to play video games with women (Yao et al., 2022). Therefore, unlike traditional female gamers, female game companions have player identities shaped by technical and professional attributes, so they are recognized as gamers (Kivijärvi & Katila, 2022). However, to align with male expectations, they might downplay their gamer identities in favor of performing femininity. As a result, within the confines of stereotypical gaming culture, female game companions navigate fluidly between their identities as women and gamers, seeking spaces of adaptation amid varying power structures and cultural expectations.

Nomadic identities are evident in the differing responses to negative stereotypes about women gamers. When confronted with such stereotypes, female players often adopt proactive defense strategies (Yao et al., 2022). However, game companions take the opposite approach. For example, women are frequently perceived as less skilled at gaming than men and are thought to rely on male gamers for in-game progress. As a result, female game companions tend to adopt supportive roles within games or deliberately downplay their gaming abilities to enhance the player’s experience.

“I can play any position decently. However, when I play with male players, they usually do not like it if you are better than them. Therefore, I will pick a support role, stick close to them, and keep hyping them up—like saying how great their gameplay or amazing their moves are.”

In contrast, the stability of male game companions’ identities highlights this disparity; they are predominantly perceived as participating in helping players achieve victories, emphasizing their core value of gaming expertise. Additionally, female gamers are often stereotyped as socially inept, and those with more potent gaming abilities are viewed as lacking femininity (Vermeulen et al., 2017). However, the feminine traits emphasized by female game companions effectively counteract this portrayal. They project qualities such as approachability, charm, and gentleness, aligning with player expectations while challenging stereotypes about female gamers. This fresh dynamic satisfies players and fuels the demand for female companions in the market.

“When chatting with players, you need to strike the right balance. Keep the conversation flowing; if it falls flat, they might complain. Emotional intelligence is key. Compliments need to feel genuine—if they are too over-the-top or fake, it will not work. You have to make them feel good about themselves. Some players say, ‘Just play normally, do not go out of your way for me,’ but they are being tsundere—they secretly love being flattered. They will almost always come back when you hit the right emotional note.”

Therefore, the nomadic identities of female game companions align with the neoliberal cultural emphasis on viewing individuals as capital and continually increasing their value through adaptable self-management to become ideal women who meet market demands (Rottenberg, 2018). This process, however, frequently intersects with patriarchal expectations of traditional gender roles for women (Gill & Scharff, 2011). Female game companions are encouraged to increase their competitiveness by adhering to these patriarchal norms, enabling their participation in gaming spaces. However, they are not permitted to become independent and equal players in the competitive arena. Instead, they are expected to conform to a notion of success dictated by patriarchal values.

Leveraging benevolent sexism: the nomadic dynamics of vocal roles

The companion market, shaped by the intersection of gaming culture and neoliberal values, has a significant oppressive influence on the current environment. The market’s gendered demands and stringent KDA^{Footnote 1} metrics (kill-death-assist ratios) create formidable challenges. These quantified standards, combined with the inherent uncertainties of competitive gaming, exacerbate the difficulties faced by female game companions. Meeting rigid KDA requirements often becomes unachievable, prompting female companions to pivot toward providing emotional labor. This shift caters to clients’ psychological needs while diverting attention from their gaming skills.

Moreover, the gaming environment further entrenches the perception of female players as undervalued and underestimated, predominantly female companions. Female companions are more likely to be blamed for in-game mistakes and subjected to gender-based insults than their male counterparts. This gendered bias leads many female companions to downplay their technical abilities to avoid negative evaluations or conflicts. Consequently, this phenomenon indirectly causes a scarcity of technically skilled female companions, fostering a discriminatory impact on their self-perception and value. Many internalize market biases as reflections of their personality traits or choices. One female companion focused on entertainment-oriented interaction:

“Generally, women are more emotionally attentive than men are, so of course, the companion market is dominated by women.”

In contrast, a technically skilled female companion admitted:

“I am not as good at talking as other female companions are, and I cannot provide the emotional value that players want.”

This gendered division stems from societal stereotypes that position “men as technical experts, women as companions” (Zhao, 2024), an implicit rule within the companion market. Under the guise of neoliberal discourse, this phenomenon is reframed as a matter of ‘personal choice’, attributing women’s career paths to individual traits rather than systemic inequalities. This not only obscures the market’s role in reinforcing rigid gender roles but also deepens female companions’ compliance with and acceptance of their designated roles, thus perpetuating patriarchal dominance within a neoliberal framework.

Therefore, female game companions adopt a flexible coping strategy centered on voice as a medium, engaging in a ‘nomadic’ use of their voices to increase players’ tolerance for unexpected situations and striking a delicate balance between financial gain and self-protection. For instance, one participant remarked:

“Even if the player does not need me to ‘carry’ them, some people care about the gaming experience. If they feel it is my fault and I act vulnerable in those moments, they will not get angry.”

This strategy of invoking player sympathy through a display of ‘vulnerability’ fundamentally leverages the positive stereotypes inherent in benevolent sexism (Connelly & Heesacker, 2012). Female companions mitigate potential conflicts from power imbalances and strive to gain more excellent agency within unfavorable market structures. However, while this emotional labor-centered service strategy is widely accepted among female companions, it is uniquely positioned in the broader companion market. Male game companions are not required to adhere strictly to these implicit rules; their voices and emotional labor are considered supplementary rather than essential. As one interviewee noted:

“When players hire both female and male companions, it’s almost always the female companion who takes the blame for any mistakes in the game. Male companions tend to stay quiet or change the subject.”

In this process, female game companions voice their core tool, adapting their tone and responses to suit varying scenarios. For female companions, their gendered traits help soften players’ harsh expectations regarding their gaming skills. Additionally, they can control the pace of interactions with players and even reverse the power dynamics within these roles. Moreover, nomadic vocal roles serve as both an economic strategy and a medium of emotional interaction. Through voice labor, companions craft enjoyable interactive experiences for players while deriving emotional satisfaction and self-recognition from these interactions.

“I use a voice changer to play with them. I might speak with my natural voice for a bit, then immediately switch to a very pleasant male voice after complimenting them and asking, ‘Do you like this voice, bro?’ Their reactions are quite interesting because emotional value is mutual; they are my clients, but they also bring me joy.”

The exclusivity of nomadic groups: Internal hierarchies of disdain

The game companionship market, shaped by neoliberal values, has evolved into a highly stratified structure, dividing companions into technical and entertainment roles. This division reflects the commodification of labor, as market dynamics prioritize distinct forms of capital—technical skills and vocal appeal—creating a hierarchy influenced by gender and economic demands. The interviewed companions highlighted a gender advantage within the market: Women, even without exceptional gaming skills, can succeed if their voices are pleasant and capable of entertaining players. However, this is not the case for male companions. Beyond neoliberalism’s reconfiguration of traditional gender roles, this market-driven structure accommodates a broader inclusion of women in employment opportunities. To survive in the gaming environment, female companions exhibit a flexible, nomadic sense of unity, adapting to market demands. However, this so-called ‘gender advantage’ also exacerbates internal divisions within the group. Differences in technical abilities, resource access, and gender performance foster exclusivity, conflicts, and biases, further shaping a disdain hierarchy between vocal appeal and technical expertise.

Technical companions often display a disdainful attitude toward entertainment companions, who rely primarily on vocal appeal. While they acknowledge that voice attractiveness can be an economic asset, they argue that the game companionship industry should prioritize technical skills and the time invested in mastering them, aligning with the market’s demand for professionalism. This emphasis on demonstrating value through measurable performance metrics directly reflects the competitive logic championed by neoliberalism—which Davies (2015) describes as a “cruel optimism” of survival of the fittest. By positioning themselves as scarce resources in the market, technical companions cultivate a sense of superiority, reinforcing their legitimacy and standing in the industry. This sense of superiority also extends to moral judgments about entertainment companions. For example, technical companions often perceive that entertainment companions who focus on emotional or entertainment services are more likely to face incidents of sexual harassment, which they see as a cost of pursuing economic gain in this manner. As one interviewee remarked:

“I would tell the player that I am one of the few female technical companions in gaming. If you want to rank up next time, you can find me… Some people would specify in their orders that they wish for a talkative girl who can flirt, but everyone understands what he truly means. I am unsuitable for them.”

In contrast, entertainment companions question the need for more vocal attractiveness and service awareness among technical companions. They emphasize that more than technical skills are needed to fulfill the market’s demand for emotional interaction services. According to them, vocal expressiveness and communication skills are crucial in this industry. As one interviewee remarked:

“There are also female companions who focus purely on technical skills, but their voices are not very pleasant… There was a technical companion before who was complained by players that this companion was like a ‘princess,’ only playing games and never speaking.”

This internal contradiction is not only reflected in differing interpretations of professional roles but also reveals the neoliberal market logic’s emphasis on individual competition, which subtly fosters divisions within the group. Technical companions strive to distinguish themselves from entertainment companions by highlighting the professionalization of their skills, asserting that technical expertise is the core value of the game service industry. In contrast, entertainment companions rely on market demand, arguing that “whoever meets the market’s needs defines success.” This conflict represents a struggle for identity legitimacy and a redefinition of market rules. Moreover, this contradictory gender bias profoundly influences how male companions perceive female companions, further perpetuating a new hierarchy of disdain. Many male companions view female companions as relying on flirtation or even sexual transactions to attract players. As one interviewee noted, “They regard us as that type of prostitute,” and she remarked, “So they often make lewd jokes with players at our expense.”

The paradox of agency: the duality of voice capital in-game companionship

While female companions acknowledge their pivotal role in the companion market and the potential to leverage vocal attractiveness, they do not see themselves as true beneficiaries. Voice attractiveness, being nonexclusive, can be replicated or enhanced through technologies such as voice changers, allowing even male companions to compete in this female-dominated market. To achieve success, female companions often intensify their emotional labor, employing humor that occasionally verges on verbal aggression, further entrenching themselves in a cycle of self-sexualization to cater to market demands. Although their intent may simply be to “make work easier,” playing these roles significantly contributes to an increased acceptance of rape myths and tolerance toward sexual harassment (Driesmans et al., 2014). This highlights the limitations of nomadic strategies. While these strategies enable female companions to secure market positions and survive within structural constraints, the apparent agency rooted in conformity seems to lead to more concealed yet profound negative consequences.

Although many companions reported severe emotional exhaustion from prolonged unequal working conditions (Grandey, 2003), many still held ambivalent stances toward the industry. The phrase ‘personal choice’ frequently appeared in female companions’ interpretations of their own or others’ actions, reflecting a nuanced attitude toward neoliberal values. Female game companions view their current choices as transitional and temporary work, lacking long-term development plans. While acknowledging the presence of sexual harassment and the gray areas of the industry, they view these as inevitable byproducts of market growth. In terms of other companions who engage in sexualized labor, they expressed respect for others’ personal choices. However, these responses, which are based on personal experiences, fall short of fully revealing their deeper attitudes toward the phenomenon of sexual capital expansion.

To delve deeper, the interviewer introduced an example from Chinese social media that had sparked significant negative public opinion at the time–Lisa, a viral KPOP star in China, performed a striptease at the Crazy Horse cabaret in France^{Footnote 2}–and asked the respondents for their views. Some expressed apparent anger and concern:

“I think what she did is problematic; her fans might start posting revealing pictures of themselves, too.”

“As a public figure who has caused negative influence, she deserves to be criticized by public opinion.”

Others maintained a neutral stance, saying, “I don’t have an opinion; everyone makes their own choices.” The participants’ responses suggest that they do not feel obligated to conform to societal expectations of responsibility, nor do they experience the collective effect of stardom. However, their personal experiences reflect only surface-level engagement, with deeper implications for the expansion of sexual capital, as evidenced by the growing and increasingly younger group of game companions. This complexity becomes more evident when respondents try to balance their professional identities with societal judgment. On one hand, they show acceptance of and adaptation to neoliberal ideologies within their professional lives; on the other hand, they express significant concerns about the cultural consequences of sexual capital’s expansion. This duality highlights how systemic issues often remain hidden, manifesting as complex psychological struggles for individuals.

Using a mixed-methods approach, the study bridges macro-level market influences with micro-level psychological motivations, shedding light on female companions’ cognitive and behavioral dynamics. While acknowledging their agency in leveraging voice attractiveness for empowerment, the study critiques the structural inequalities and gendered biases perpetuated by gaming culture and neoliberal ideologies. These findings offer a nuanced understanding of the paradoxical dynamics surrounding the commodification of voice in the game companion industry.

In past studies, the psychological motivations of female game companions have been underexplored. This study fills that gap by adapting psychological concepts related to sexual attractiveness into a scale for voice attractiveness. It uncovers the intrinsic motivations behind female game companions’ participation in sexualized labor. The findings show that voice attractiveness—both a form of personal power and a source of sexualized pleasure—predicts self-sexualization of the voice. This suggests that voice attractiveness is a privileged resource, offering female companions tangible benefits, such as empowerment and economic gains. The study challenges traditional East Asian narratives of female passivity by presenting women as proactive agents (Li & Hu, 2013), actively leveraging their voices to reshape gaming experiences. Through nomadic voice strategies, female companions redefine player-companion dynamics by presenting themselves as vulnerable or accommodating, subtly inverting power relations to secure emotional dependence and loyalty.

The study’s findings suggest that, at least within the gaming environment, sexual capital has become normalized and widespread. However, despite the clear market demand for female game companions, the study reveals that they do not hold a gendered advantage or dominate the labor force. In male-dominated environments, sexual harassment and gendered labor divisions exacerbate their commodification. The discourse of self-responsibility ignores the power imbalances between capitalists and workers, as well as men and women, reinforcing hegemonic structures (English & Brown, 2023). Neoliberal feminist consciousness—particularly the notion of “voice attractiveness as power”—encourages female companions to seek empowerment through sexualized voices. However, this empowerment remains constrained by an unequal power dynamic, rendering it a reluctant and constrained strategy. The power derived from objectification is fleeting and contingent on external validation (De Wilde et al., 2021) while simultaneously deepening the internalization of gender roles, especially when role-playing caters to sexualized fantasies. The voices of female companions are often reduced to objects of intimate relationships or even erotic representations, which increases their vulnerability to game-related violence. Besides, unlike visual sexualization, voice modification offers a degree of ambiguity, allowing companions to leverage voice-based narratives that blur the boundaries of sexualized companionship culture. This helps mitigate cognitive dissonance regarding value perceptions, as many female companions resist explicit visual sexualization, particularly among those holding more traditional views on sexuality in China, where sexualized work is often framed within the “Madonna-whore” dichotomy (Ruberg et al., 2019). Though some embrace neoliberal principles and self-sexualization, they remain aware of the instability and lack of dignity inherent in such work.

This study also identifies the concept of nomadic voice, a strategic adaptation that allows female game companions to navigate the emerging game companionship market. This strategy illustrates their active negotiation of market expectations and the dynamics of gaming culture. However, despite these efforts, traditional gender norms continue to influence female game companions’ cognitive frameworks and behaviors. These norms create conflicting identities that both replicate and reinforce harmful stereotypes, forcing them to align with male esthetic expectations. As a result, internal divisions emerge among female peers, exacerbating gender-based hostility and discrimination within the community. The intersection of toxic gaming culture and neoliberal ideology further complicates the self-identification process for these companions, fostering a self-deceptive narrative about their roles. While some may recognize the negative consequences of their actions, their personal and societal limitations hinder critical reflection on the broader social implications. This highlights the dangers inherent in neoliberalism: the pervasive trend of self-commodification in the game companionship industry not only intensifies gender-based violence but also undermines workers’ rights and weakens social protections (Mandel, 2013).

Finally, the limitations of this study primarily stem from the lack of diversity in the sample of female game companions, with a narrow age range and a focus on multiplayer competitive games. One lesbian participant noted that within niche lesbian companion circles, the games played, companion strategies and voice personas may exhibit distinct characteristics. Future research should aim to diversify the sample by including male, transgender, and nonbinary game companions to provide a more inclusive and balanced perspective. This would deepen our understanding of how different demographics experience and navigate the complexities of companion work. Additionally, a longitudinal approach is recommended to assess the long-term psychological effects of voice commodification on game companions, offering insights into the enduring impacts of sexualization, objectification, and sexual harassment on mental well-being. The commodification of online interactions has become an increasingly prevalent global trend in response to evolving social needs. The Chinese game companionship industry exemplifies these neoliberal commodification processes, reflecting the complex relationship between market demands and individual agency. However, challenges related to ethical regulation remain. Future research should address the boundaries of commodification and ethical considerations within the companion industry, providing solutions for its sustainable and equitable development. These issues require urgent attention from researchers.